Achaemenid Empire

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The Achaemenid Empire (Old Persian: Hakhāmanishiya also frequently, the 'Achaemenid Persian Empire'.) was the first of the Persian Empires to rule over significant portions of Greater Iran. It also eventually incorporated the following territories: in the east modern Afghanistan and portions of Pakistan; in the north and west all of Turkey (Anatolia), the upper Balkans peninsula (Thrace), and most of the Black Sea Coastal regions; in the west and south-west the territories of modern Iraq, northern Saudi-Arabia, Palestine, (Jordan, Israel, Lebanon), all significant population centers of ancient Egypt, and as far west as portions of Libya. Encompassing approximately 7.5 million squared kilometers, the Achaemenid Empire resulted in becoming the largest territorial empire of classical antiquity and second most populated after the Roman Empire in the same historical period.

The name refers to both the founding dynasty (disputed) and the small subservient tributary state which became its own self-liberator and the conqueror of the older Medean Empire. It is the political entity that generally comes to mind when referring to the ancient Persian Empire in western cultures—it was the empire which threw off the yoke of existence as a tributary state of the Medes (founders of the first empires in greater Persia/Iran), the empire which humbled and ruled Egypt, which twice threatened to conquer all the ancient Greeks, and which in turn, eventually fell to Alexander the Great — in its time it was a comparative superpower with high cultural and economical achievements during its lengthy rule over a vast region ten times the size of modern Germany from its picturesque capital at Persepolis.

[edit] The name

Darius I was the first to speak of Achaemenes, who he claimed was an ancestor of Cyrus II the Great, (ca. 576 - 529 BC) and therefore the progenitor of the entire line of Achaemenid rulers. However, some scholars hold that Achaemenes was a fictional character used to legitimize Darius' rule, and that Darius I usurped the Persian throne (see especially Stronach 1997, 37-40). In any case, the name Achaemenid has been commonly accepted for the line of Persian kings beginning at least with Darius I. When the name refers to the entire line of early Persian rulers, including Cyrus II and his son Cambyses II, the Achaemenid era stretches from about 650 to 330 BC.

History of Iran Empires of Persia - Kings of Persia Proto-Elamite civilization (3200–2700 BCE) Jiroft civilization (3000–5th c. BCE) Elamite dynasties (2700–539 BCE) Kingdom of Mannai (10th–7th c. BCE) Median Empire (728–550 BCE) Achaemenid Empire (648–330 BCE) Seleucid Empire (330–150 BCE) Parthian Empire (250 BCE– 226 CE) Sassanid Dynasty (226–650) Patriarchal Caliphate (637–651) Umayyad Caliphate (661-750) Abbasid Caliphate (750-1258) Tahirid dynasty (821–873) Alavid dynasty (864–928) Saffarid dynasty (861–1003) Samanid dynasty (875–999) Ziyarid dynasty (928–1043) Buwayhid dynasty (934–1055) Ghaznavid Empire (963–1187) Ghori dynasty (1149–1212) Seljukid Empire (1037–1194) Khwarezmid dynasty (1077–1231) Ilkhanate (1256–1353) Muzaffarid dynasty (1314–1393) Chupanid dyansty (1337–1357) Jalayerid dynasty (1339–1432) Timurid Empire (1370–1506) Qara Qoyunlu Turcomans (1407–1468) Aq Qoyunlu Turcomans (1378–1508) Safavid Empire (1501–1722/1736) Hotaki Ghilzai dynasty (1722–1729) Afsharid dynasty (1736–1802) Zand dynasty (1750–1794) Qajar dynasty (1781–1925) Pahlavi dynasty (1925–1979) Islamic Revolution (1979) Provisional Government (1979–1980) Islamic Republic of Iran (1980–Present)
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[edit] History

[edit] The early period

The founder of this dynasty was supposedly Achaemenes: هخامنش (Old Persian Haxāmaniš "Of Friendly Mind"). He was succeeded by his son Teispes (Ciڑpi), who first took the title King of Anšān after seizing Anšān city from the Elamites. Inscriptions indicate that when Teispes died, two of his sons shared the throne as Cyrus (Kurush), king of Anšān, and Ariaramnes (Ariyāramna, 'Having the Iranians at Peace'), king of Parsua (later called Pārsa, that is, Persia Proper). They were succeeded by their respective sons Cambyses I of Anshan (Kambūjiya, "the Elder"), and Arsames (Aršāma "Having a Hero's Might") of Iran(Persia).

In 559 BC, Cambyses I the Elder was succeeded as king of Anڑān by his son Cyrus II the Great, who also succeeded the still-living Arsames as King of Persia, thus reuniting the two realms. Cyrus is considered to be the first king of the Achaemenid dynasty to be properly called so, as his predecessors were subservient to Media. Cyrus II conquered Media, Lydia and Babylon. Cyrus was politically shrewd, appearing as the "savior" of a nation which virtually guaranteed allegiance and well-disposed behavior. It was the general policy of the Achaemenids to continue the Assyrian and Babylonian policy of transferring large populations between areas, in effect mixing disparate groups together and diluting any nationalism they may otherwise have had - intended as a calming measure, and resulting in the Achaemenid era being known as a relatively peaceful period in Middle Eastern history.

His immediate successors were less successful. Cyrus' son Cambyses II conquered Egypt, but died in July 522 BC as the result of either accident or suicide, during a revolt led by a sacerdotal clan that had lost its power following Cyrus' conquest of Media. These priests, who Herodotus called Magi, usurped the throne for one of their own, Gautama, who then pretended to be Cambyses II's younger brother Smerdis (Pers. Bardiya), who had (probably) been assassinated three years earlier. Owing to the despotic rule of Cambyses and his long absence in Egypt, "the whole people, Perses, Medes and all the other nations," acknowledged the usurper, especially as he granted a remission of taxes for three years (Herodotus iii. 68).

According to the Behistun Inscription, pseudo-Smerdis ruled for seven months before being overthrown in 522 BC by a member of a lateral branch of the Achaemenid family, Darius I (Old Persian Dāryavuš "Who Holds Firm the Good", also known as Darayarahush or Darius the Great). The "Magi", though persecuted, continued to exist, and a year following the death of the first pseudo-Smerdis (Gautama), had a second pseudo-Smerdis (named Vahyazdāta) attempt a coup. The coup, though initially successful, failed.

According to Herodotus, the native leadership then debated the best form of government for the Empire. He reports that it was decided that oligarchy would divide them against one another, and democracy would bring about mob rule resulting in a charismatic leader resuming the monarchy. Therefore, they decided a new monarch was in order, particularly since they were in a position to choose him. Darius I was chosen monarch from amongst the leaders. He was cousin to Cambyses II and Smerdis, claiming Ariaramnes as his ancestor.

Darius I attacked the Greek mainland, which had supported rebellious Greek colonies under his aegis; but as a result of his defeat at the Battle of Marathon in 490, he was forced to pull the limits of his empire back to Asia Minor.

The Achaemenids thereafter consolidated areas firmly under their control. It was Cyrus the Great and Darius the Great who, by sound and farsighted administrative planning, brilliant military maneuvering, and a humanistic world view, established the greatness of the Achaemenids and in less than thirty years raised them from an obscure tribe to a world power. It was during the reign of Darius I that Persepolis (built 518-516 BC) was built and which would serve as capital for several generations of Achaemenid kings. Ecbatana (Hagmatāna "City of Gatherings", modern Hamadan) in Media was greatly expanded during this period and served as the summer capital.

[edit] Expansion

Under Xerxes I (485 BC - 465 BC, Old Persian Xšayārša "Hero Among Kings"), son of Darius I, the Greeks were beaten at Thermopylae (Battle of Thermopylae), Athens conquered and burnt down, the Athenians with Sparta driven back to their last line of defense at the Isthmus of Corinth and in the Saronic Gulf. At Artemisuem the battle was indecisive as large storms destroyed ships from both sides. The battle was also stopped prematurely as the Greeks caught news of the defeat at Thermopylae and retreated. Finally, the Battle of Salamis (September 28, 480) was won by the Athenians. Having lost his communication by sea with Asia, Xerxes was forced to retire to Sardis; the army which he left in Greece under Mardonius was in 479 beaten at Plataea. The defeat of the Persians at Mycale roused the Greek cities of Asia to revolt.

Nonetheless, by the 5th century BCE the Achaemenid kings ruled over territories roughly encompassing today's Iran, Iraq, Armenia, Afghanistan, Turkey, Bulgaria, eastern parts of Greece, Egypt, Syria, much of what is now Pakistan, Jordan, Israel, Palestine, Lebanon, Caucasia, Central Asia, Libya, and northern parts of Arabia. The empire eventually became the largest empire of the ancient world.

At different times, the Achaemenids also ruled Egypt, although the Egyptians twice regained their independence from Persia. After the practice of Manetho, Egyptian historians refer to the period in Egypt when the Achaemenid dynasty ruled as the Twenty-Seventh (525 BC - 404 BC) and Thirty-First Dynasties (343- 332 BC) respectively.

[edit] The cultural phase

Xerxes I was followed by Artaxerxes I (465 - 424 BC), who moved the capital from Persepolis to Babylon. It was during this reign that Elamite ceased to be the language of government, and the Persian language came into prominence. It was probably during this reign that the solar calendar (based on the Babylonian one) was introduced as the national calendar. Under Artaxerxes I, Zoroastrianism became the de-facto religion of state, and for this Artaxerxes I is today also known as the Constantine of that faith.

Artaxerxes I died in Susa, and his body was brought to Persepolis for interment in the tomb of his forebearers. Artaxerxes I was immediately succeeded by his eldest son Xerxes II, who was however assassinated by one of his half-brothers a few weeks later. Darius II was then in Babylon, where he rallied support for himself. He marched eastwards, disposed and put to death the assassin and was crowned in his stead.

From 412 Darius II (423 - 404 BC), at the instance of the able Tissaphernes, gave support now to Athens, now to Sparta, but in 407, Darius' son Cyrus the Younger was appointed to replace Tissaphernes and aid was given entirely to Sparta which finally defeated Athens in 404. In the same year, Darius fell fatally ill and died in Babylon. At his deathbed, his Babylonian wife Parysatis pleaded with Darius to have her second eldest son Cyrus (the Younger) crowned, but Darius refused.

Darius was then succeeded by his eldest son Artaxerxes II Mnemon. Plutarch relates (probably on the authority of Ctesias) that the displaced Tissaphernes came to the new king on his coronation day to warn him that his younger brother Cyrus (the Younger) was preparing to assassinate him during the ceremony. Artaxerxes had Cyrus arrested and would have had him put to death if their mother Parysatis had not intervened. Cyrus was then sent back as Satrap of Lydia, where he prepared an armed rebellion. Cyrus and Artaxerxes met in the Battle of Cunaxa in 401 BC, when Cyrus was killed.

Artaxerxes II (404 - 358 BC), was the longest reigning of the Achaemenid kings and it was during this 45-year period of (relative) peace and stability that many of the monuments of the era were constructed. Artaxerxes moved the capital back to Persepolis, which he greatly extended. Also the summer capital at Ecbatana was lavishly extended with gilded columns and roof tiles of silver and copper (Polybius, 10.27.12). The extraordinary innovation of the Zoroastrian shrine cults can also be dated to his reign, and it was probably during this period that Zoroastrianism was disseminated throughout Asia Minor and the Levant, and from there to Armenia. The temples, though serving a religious purpose, where however not a purely selfless act: they also served as an important source of income. From the Babylonian kings, the Achaemenids had taken over the concept of a mandatory temple tax, a one-tenth tithe which all inhabitants paid to the temple nearest to their land or other source of income (Dandamaev & Lukonin, 1989:361-362). A share of this income called the quppu ša šarri, "kings chest" - an ingenious institution originally introduced by Nabonidus - was then turned over to the ruler. In retrospect, Artaxerxes is generally regarded as an amiable man who lacked the moral fibre to be a really successful ruler. However, six centuries later Ardeshir I, founder of the second Persian Empire, would consider himself Artaxerxes' successor, a grand testimony of the importance of Artaxerxes to the Persian psyche.

[edit] Fall of the Empire

If Greek accounts are to be trusted, Artaxerxes' successor Artaxerxes III (358 BC-338 BC) came to the throne by bloody means, ensuring his place upon the throne by the assassination of eight of his half-brothers. In 343 BC Artaxerxes III defeated Nectanebo II, driving him from Egypt, and made Egypt once again a Persian satrapy. In 338 BC, the very year that Philip of Macedon united the Greek states (by force) and so paved the way for Alexander, Artaxerxes III was poisoned by his commander-in-chief, Bagoas. By this murder, it has been said, Bagoas destroyed the Persian Empire (Olmstead, 1948:489).

Artxerxes III was succeeded by Artaxerxes IV Arses, who before he could act was also poisoned by Bagoas. Bagoas is further said to have killed not only all Arses' children, but many of the other princes of the land. Bagoas then had Darius III (336 BC - 330 BC), a nephew of Artaxerxes IV, placed on the throne.

Darius III, although previously Satrap of Armenia, had no training in governing the empire. Nonetheless, he showed his mettle in his first year as emperor by personally forcing Bagoas to swallow poison. In 334 BC, when Darius was just succeeding in subduing Egypt again, Alexander attacked Asia Minor and although the western Satraps met him in force, these were no match for the (now) battle-hardened troops of the Macedonian. Following the Battles of Issus (332 BC), then Gaugamela (331 BC), Babylon (331 BC), Alexander marched on Susa, which likewise capitulated and surrendered vast treasure. Alexander then went eastwards to Persepolis which surrendered in early 330 BC. From Persepolis, Alexander headed north to Pasargadae where he treated the tomb of Cyrus II with respect. From there he headed to Ecbatana, where Darius III had sought refuge. Darius III was killed, and on orders from Alexander, his body was taken with full honors to Persepolis for interment.

The Achaemenid era was succeeded by the Seleucid era, that is, by the generals of Alexander and their descendants. They in turn would be succeeded by the Aracid dynasty of Parthia in North-Eastern Iran, who would (quite spuriously) claim Artaxerxes II for their ancestor. Istakhr, one of the vassal kingdoms of the Aracids would be overthrown by Papak, a priest of the temple there. Papak's son, Ardeshir I, who named himself in remembrance of Artaxerxes II, revolted against the Parthians, defeated them and went on to establish the second Persian Empire, 556 years after the end of the first.

[edit] Politics and administration

[edit] Government

The Achaemenids were enlightened despots who allowed a certain amount of regional autonomy in the form of the satrapy system. A satrapy was an administrative unit, usually organized on a geographical basis. A satrap (governor) administered the region, a general supervised military recruitment and ensured order, and a state secretary kept official records. The general and the state secretary reported directly to the central government.

Accomplishments of Darius' reign included codification of the data, a universal legal system upon which much of later Iranian law would be based, and construction of a new capital at Persepolis, where vassal states would offer their yearly tribute at the festival celebrating the spring equinox.

[edit] Communications

The twenty satrapies were linked by a 2,500-kilometer highway, the most impressive stretch being the Royal Road from Susa to Sardis, built by command of Darius I. Relays of mounted couriers could reach the remotest of areas in fifteen days. Despite the relative local independence afforded by the satrapy system, royal inspectors, the "eyes and ears of the king," toured the empire and reported on local conditions. The king also maintained a personal bodyguard of 10,000 men, called the Immortals.

[edit] Trade and economy

Darius revolutionized the economy by placing it on a silver and gold coinage system. Trade was extensive, and under the Achaemenids there was an efficient infrastructure that facilitated the exchange of commodities in the far reaches of the empire. Tariffs on trade were one of the empire's main sources of revenue, along with agriculture and tribute.

[edit] Culture

[edit] Language

The language in common use in the empire was Aramaic. Until the reign of Artaxerxes I, even when the seat of government was no longer at Susa, the language of government and inscriptions was predominantly Elamite. From the reign of Artaxerxes I onwards, the language of state was Old Persian.

[edit] Customs

Herodotus mentions that the Persians were given to great birthday feasts, which would be followed by many desserts, a treat which they reproached the Greeks for omitting from their meals. Likewise, he observed that the Persians drank wine in large quantities and used it even for counsel, deliberating on important affairs when drunk, and deciding the next day, when sober, whether to act on the decision or set it aside.

On their methods of greeting, he asserts that equals kissed on the lips, persons of some difference in rank kissed on the cheek, and the lowest ranks would prostrate on the ground to the upper ranks. It is known that men of high rank practiced polygamy, and were reputed to have a number of wives and a greater number of concubines. On their same-sex relations, high ranked men kept favorites, such as Bagoas (courtier) who was one of Darius III's favorites and who later became Alexander's eromenos. Persian pederasty and its origins was debated even in ancient times. Herodotus claimed they had learned it from the Greeks: "...and [the Persians'] luxurious practices are of all kinds, and all borrowed: the Greeks taught them pederasty." (Histories;I.135, tr. A.D. Godley) However, Plutarch asserts that the Persians used eunuch boys "the Greek way" long before contact between the cultures. (De Malig. Herod. xiii.ll)

Also from Herodotus we learn that the Persians had a very high regard for truth, teaching the respect of truth to their children and despising nothing so much as a lie. On the education of the children, we learn that from the age of five until twenty they were taught to ride, shoot the bow, and speak the truth. Until the age of five children spent all their time among the women and never met the father, so that, should they die in infancy, he would not sorrow over their loss. (Herodotus, The History, passim)

[edit] Religion

It was during the Achaemenid period that Zoroastrianism reached South-Western Iran, where it came to be accepted by the rulers and through them became a defining element of Persian culture. The religion was not only accompanied by a formalization of the concepts and divinities of the traditional (Indo-)Iranian pantheon but also introduced several novel ideas, including that of free will, which is arguably Zoroaster's greatest contribution to religious philosophy.

Under the patronage of the Achaemenid kings, and by the 5th century BCE as the de-facto religion of the state, Zoroastrianism would reach all corners of the empire. In turn, Zoroastrianism would be subject to the first sycretic influences, in particular from the Semitic lands to the west, from which the divinities of the religion would gain astral and planetary aspects and from where the temple cult originates.

For in the mid-5th century BCE, that is during the reign of Artaxerxes I and Darius II, Herodotus wrote "[the Perses] have no images of the gods, no temples nor altars, and consider the use of them a sign of folly. This comes, I think, from their not believing the gods to have the same nature with men, as the Greeks imagine." He claims the Persians offer sacrifice to: "the sun and moon, to the earth, to fire, to water, and to the winds. These are the only gods whose worship has come down to them from ancient times. At a later period they began the worship of Urania, which they borrowed from the Arabians and Assyrians. Mylitta is the name by which the Assyrians know this goddess, whom the Arabians call Alitta, and the Persians [Anahita]." (The original name here is Mithra, which has since been explained to be a confusion of Anahita with Mithra, understandable since they were commonly worshipped together in one temple).

From the Babylonian scholar-priest Berosus, who – although writing over 70 years after the reign of Artaxerxes II Mnemon - records that the emperor had been the first to make cult statues of divinities and had them placed them in temples in many of the major cities of the empire (Berosus, III.65). Berosus also substantiates Herodotus when he says the Persians knew of no images of gods until Artaxerxes II erected those images. On the means of sacrifice, Herodotus adds "they raise no altar, light no fire, pour no libations." This sentence has been interpreted to identify a critical (but later) accretions to Zoroastrianism. An altar with a wood-burning fire and the Yasna service at which libations are poured are all clearly identifyable with modern Zoroastrianism, but were apparently practices that had not yet developed in the mid-5th century. Boyce also assigns that development to the reign of Artaxerxes II (4th century BC), as an orthodox response to the innovation of the shrine cults.

Herodotus also observed that "no prayer or offering can be made without a magus present" but this should not be confused with what is today understood by the term magus, that is a magupat (modern Persian: mobed), a Zoroastrian priest. Nor does Herodotus' description of the term as one of the tribes or castes of the Medes does not necessarily imply that these magi were Medians. They were simply a hereditary priesthood to be found all over Western Iran and although (originally) not associated with any one specific religion, they were traditionally responsible for all ritual and religious services. Although the unequivocal identification of the magus with Zoroastrianism came later (Sassanid era, 3rd-7th c. AD), it is from Herodotus' magus of the mid-5th century that Zoroastrianism was subject to doctrinal modifications that are today considered to be revocations of the original teachings of the prophet. Also, many of the ritual practices described in the Avesta's Vendidad (such as exposure of the dead) were already practiced by the magu of Herodotus ' time.

[edit] Art and architecture

Achaemenid art, like Achaemenid religion, was a blend of many elements. Just as the Achaemenids were tolerant in matters of local government and custom, as long as Persians controlled the general policy and administration of the empire, so also were they tolerant in art so long as the finished and total effect was Persian. At Pasargadae (Pārsagad), the capital of Cyrus II and Cambyses II, and at Persepolis, the neighboring city founded by Darius the Great and used by all of his successors, one can trace to a foreign origin almost all of the several details in the construction and embellishment of the architecture and the sculptured reliefs; but the conception, planning, and overall finished product are distinctly Persian.

Moreover, when Cyrus chose to build Pasargadae, he had a long artistic tradition behind him that was probably already distinctly Iranian and that was in many ways the equal of any. The columned hall in architecture can now be seen as belonging to an architectural tradition on the Iranian Plateau that extended back through the Median period to at least the beginning of the 1st millennium BC. The rich Achaemenid gold work, which inscriptions suggest may have been a specialty of the Medes, was in the tradition of the delicate metalwork found in Iron Age II times at Hasanlu and still earlier at Marlik.

This Achaemenid artistic style is particularly evident at Persepolis: with its carefully proportioned and well-organized ground plan, rich architectural ornament, and magnificent decorative reliefs, the palace there is one of the great artistic legacies of the ancient world. In its art and architecture, Persepolis celebrates the king and the office of the monarch and reflected Darius' perception of himself as the leader of a conglomerate people to whom he had given a new and single identity. The Achaemenids took the art forms and the cultural and religious traditions of many of the ancient Middle Eastern peoples and combined them into a single form.

In describing the construction of his palace at Susa, Darius records that The cedar timber from there (a mountain by name Lebanon) was brought, the yaka timber was brought from Gandara and from Carmania. The gold was brought from Sardis and from Bactria . . . the precious stone lapis-lazuli and carnelian . . . was brought from Sogdiana. The turquoise from Chorasmia, the silver and ebony from Egypt, the ornamentation from Ionia, the ivory from Ethiopia and from Sind and from Arachosia. The stone-cutters who wrought the stone, those were Ionians and Sardians. The goldsmiths were Medes and Egyptians. The men who wrought the wood, those were Sardians and Egyptians. The men who wrought the baked brick, those were Babylonians. The men who adorned the wall, those were Medes and Egyptians."

This was an imperial art on a scale the world had not seen before. Materials and artists were drawn from all the lands ruled by the great kings, and thus tastes, styles, and motifs became mixed together in an eclectic art and architecture that in itself mirrored the empire and the Achaemenid understanding of how that empire ought to function.

[edit] Achaemenid rulers

[edit] Unattested

The epigraphic evidence for these rulers cannot be confirmed and are often considered to have been invented by Darius I

• Achaemenes of Persia
• Teispes of Anshan, son of Achaemenes
• Cyrus I of Anshan, son of Teispes
• Ariaramnes of Persia, son of Teispes and co-ruler with Cyrus I
• Cambyses I of Anshan, son of Cyrus I
• Arsames of Persia, son of Ariaramnes and co-ruler with Cambyses I

[edit] Attested

• Cyrus II, the Great, son of Cambyses I, ruled from c.550–530 BC (ruler of Anshan c. 559 BC – conquered Media 550 BC)
• Cambyses II, son of Cyrus the Great, ruled 529–522 BC
• Smerdis (Bardiya), alleged son of Cyrus the Great, ruled 522 BC (Possibly a usurper)
• Darius I, the Great, brother-in-law of Smerdis and grandson of Arsames, ruled 521–486 BC
• Xerxes I, son of Darius I, ruled 485–465 BC
• Artaxerxes I Longimanus, son of Xerxes I, ruled 465–424 BC
• Xerxes II, son of Artaxerxes I, ruled 424 BC
• Sogdianus, half-brother and rival of Xerxes II, ruled 424–423 BC
• Darius II Nothus, half-brother and rival of Xerxes II, ruled 423–405 BC
• Artaxerxes II Mnemon, son of Darius II, ruled 404–359 BC (see also Xenophon)
• Artaxerxes III Ochus, son of Artaxerxes II, ruled 358–338 BC
• Artaxerxes IV Arses, son of Artaxerxes III, ruled 338–336 BC
• Darius III Codomannus, great-grandson of Darius II, ruled 336–330 BC

[edit] See also

• Persian Empire
• Cyrus the Great, Founder of Achaemenid dynasty and King of Persia.
• Darius I the Great, King of Persia.
• Persepolis, One of the greatest monuments of Achaemenid dynasty.
• List of kings of Persia
• Pharaoh
• Sassanid Empire
• The Achaemenid Royal Road

[edit] References

• The Circle of Ancient Iranian Studies at SOAS (CASI at SOAS)
• Stronach, David "Darius at Pasargadae: A Neglected Source for the History of Early Persia," Topoi
• Stronach, David "Anshan and Parsa: Early Achaemenid History, Art and Architecture on the Iranian Plateau". In: John Curtis, ed., Mesopotamia and Iran in the Persian Period: Conquest and Imperialism 539-331, 35-53. London: British Museum Press 1997.

[edit] Further reading

• Ancient Persia Josef Wiesehofer
• Forgotten Empire: The World of Ancient Persia J. E Curtis and N. Tallis
• From Cyrus to Alexander: A History of the Persian Empire Pierre Briant
• The Greco-Persian Wars Peter Green
• The Greek and Persian Wars 499-386 BC Philip De Souza
• The Heritage of Persia Richard N. Frye
• History of the Persian Empire A.T. Olmstead
• The Persian Empire Lindsay Allen
• The Persian Empire J.M. Cook
• Persian Fire: The First World Empire and the Battle for the West Tom Holland
• Pictorial History of Iran: Ancient Persia Before Islam 15000 B.C.-625 A.D. Amini Sam
• Timelife Persians: Masters of the Empire (Lost Civilizations)
• Dandamaev, M.A. A Political History of the Achaemenid Empire. Leiden: Brill Academic Publishers, 1989 (ISBN 9004091726).

[edit] External links

• Achemenet The major electronic resource for the study of the history, literature and archaeology of the Persian Empire
• Musée achéménide virtuel et interactif (Mavi) Un vaste "Musée achéménide virtuel et interactif" (Mavi) de plus de 8.000 pièces, consacré au patrimoine de l'Empire Perse de Cyrus à Alexandre le Grand, est désormais consultable sur internet à l'initiative d'un professeur du Collège de France, Pierre Briant
• CAIS on Achaemenids
• Livius.org on Achaemenids
• Livius.org on Achaemenid Royal Inscriptions
• Cyrus' Charter of Human Rights
• Iranchamber.com on Achaemenid art
• Persepolis Fortification Archive Project

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 shift:(5,-5)
 mark:(line,Mil)
 color:events

 barset:events
 barset:break
 at:1453 text:Fall of Constantinople
 barset:break
 at:-1275 text:"Battle of Kadesh"
 at:-547 text:Battle of Pteira
 at:-333 text:Battle of Issus
 at:677 text:Battle of Syllaeum
 barset:break
 at:-705 text:Cimmerian invasion
 at:330 text:Constantinople 
 at:1839 text:Nationalism

 mark:(none,mark2)
 width:3
 align:left
 color:othe

 bar:hist1
 from:-1750 till:-1500 shift:(-8,0) text:Hittite Old  &
 from:-1430 till:-1180 shift:(0,0) text:New Kingdom
 from:-900 till:-600 shift:(2,0) text:Urartu
 from:-545 till:-333 shift:(-2,0) color:zoro text:"Achaemenids"
 from:-190 till:428 shift:(4,0) color:othe text:"Armenia"
 from:1078 till:1375 shift:(-6,0) color:red  text:Lesser Armenia
 from:1918 till:1922 shift:(24,0) color:red align:right text:Republic of Armenia
 bar:hist2
 from:-2100 till:-1950 shift:(2,0) text:"Troy IV"
 from:-1700 till:-1400 shift:(2,0) text:"Troy VI"
 from:-1300 till:-1190 shift:(-6,0) text:"Troy VIIa"
 from:-626 till:-550 shift:(2,0) color:zoro text:Medes
 from:-250 till:-150 shift:(2,0) text:"Seleucids"
 from:226 till:650 shift:(2,0) color:zoro text:"Sassanids"

 bar:hist3 
 from:-1300 till:-1250 shift:(-10,0) text:Assuwa
 from:-1150 till:-490 shift:(2,0) text:Ionia
 from:-323 till:-146 shift:(-8,0) text:Hellenism

 bar:hist4 
 from:-1500 till:-1320 shift:(2,0) text:Arzawa
 from:-1200 till:-546 shift:(2,0) text:"Phrygia"
 from:-133 till:392 shift:(2,0) text:Roman Asia
 from:392 till:1453 shift:(2,0) color:red text:Byzantine Empire

 bar:hist5
 from:-1150 till:-547 shift:(2,0) color:othe   text:Lydia
 from:1299 till:1922 shift:(2,0) color:mus text:Ottoman

 bar:hist6
 from:-1150 till:-547 shift:(2,0) text:Caria
 from:1071 till:1300 shift:(2,0) color:mus text:Seljuk
 from:1923 till:end shift:(2,0)  color:sec text:Turkey

 bar:hist7
 from:-1150 till:-547 shift:(2,0) text:Lycia

 bar:periods
 at:476   shift:(0, 12) text:"Middle Ages"
 from:-1100 till:-700 shift:(-10,12) text:"Neo-Hittite period"
 from:1500   till:1789  shift:(0, 0) color:green text:"<Early Modern Europe"
 from:1790   till:end   shift:(0, 12) color:skyblue text:"<Modern Europe"
 from:start  till:-1200   shift:(80, 0) color:powderblue text:Bronze Age
 from:-1199  till:-586   shift:(0, 0) color:skyblue text:Iron Age
 from:-585  till:-322   shift:(0, 0) color:powderblue  text:Babylonian
 from:-321  till:-37   shift:(0, -10) color:blue text:Hellenistic
 from:-36  till:395   shift:(0, 0) color:powderblue  text:Roman
 from:395  till:634   shift:(0, -10) color:red text:Byzantine
 from:635    till:1099  shift:(0, 0) color:green text:Arab
 from:1100    till:1291  shift:(0, 0) color:red text:Crusades

cs:Achaimenovci de:Achämenidenreich es:Aqueménida eo:Aĥemenida dinastio fa:هخامنشیان fr:Achéménides it:Achemenidi nl:Achaemeniden ja:アケメネス朝 no:Akamenide-dynastiet pl:Achemenidzi pt:Aquemênidas ru:Ахемениды sk:Achajmenovci sl:Ahemenidi sr:Ахемениди fi:Akemenidien hallitsijasuku sv:Akemenider [zh:阿契美尼德帝國]]