Aggression

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For the concept in international law, see Aggression (war crime).

In psychology, aggression refers to behavior that is intended to cause harm or pain. Aggression can be either physical or verbal, and behavior is classified as aggression even if it does not succeed in causing harm or pain. Behavior that accidentally causes harm or pain is not aggression. Aggression is not the same as assertiveness.

Moyer (1968) presented an early, and highly influential, classification of seven different forms of aggression, from a biological and evolutionary point of view.

1. Predatory aggression: attack on prey by a predator.
2. Inter-male aggression: competition between males of the same species over access to females, dominance, status etc.
3. Fear-induced aggression: aggression associated with attempts to flee from a threat.
4. Irritable aggression: aggression directed towards an available target induced by some sort of frustration (e.g. schedule-induced aggression).
5. Territorial aggression: defence of a fixed space against intruders, typically conspecifics.
6. Maternal aggression: a female's aggression to protect her offspring from a threat. Paternal aggression also exists.
7. Instrumental aggression: aggression directed towards obtaining some goal, maybe a learned response to a situation.

[edit] Aggression against outsiders

An example of this type of aggression is that of a group defending itself against a predator to keep members of its group from becoming prey.

In such cases, the strong ones in the group can form a circle around the weak and defend them (thus using aggression, and possibly endangering themselves) or the strong of the group can flee; leaving the weak to be be eaten.

[edit] Aggression against the own kind

One function of aggression is that the leader of a group is determined or the pecking order.

Another purpose of aggression is the gaining of an own territory. Initially that means scaring away the competition of the own kind. An effect of this is that the own kind will spread itself over the available space, each having its own territory. Once all territory has been used up, the aggression will, instead of scaring away, lead to competition or death to weaker parties.

[edit] Aggression against friends

Since aggression is part of life ^{[citation needed]} and partly genetic ^{[citation needed]}, not being able to express aggression can be unhealthy ^{[citation needed]}. If people are locked up together for a long time they may fight with each other. Aggression can be experienced as fun when it fulfills this drive, in particular if one does not run any risk himself, which may explain the origin of bullying.

[edit] Psychology

Aggression is one of the most important and most controversial kinds of motivation. Its use as a category in the psychology of motivation has often been criticised, because it is clear that it encompasses a vast range of phenomena, from modern war to squabbles between individuals. It is far from clear that these have anything in common other than the risk that someone gets hurt. There is a constant danger that concepts and explanations that are useful in the study of one kind of aggression will be misapplied in a different field. However, it remains one of the most important topics in many areas of psychology and other social sciences, including:

• motivation
• ethology and comparative psychology
• social psychology
• psychoanalysis and other kinds of depth psychology
• game theory
• social anthropology
• criminology
• ethics
• international relations

[edit] Identification

Not all aggression is direct or readily identifiable. Some aggression may occur in the context of what appear to be a friendship. Such Relational aggression may involve domination, even sadism as the more powerful friend torments the weaker through threats of exclusion. Indirect aggression involves such actions as spreading rumors about others, even lies; as may social aggression which attacks self esteem or social status. Together these are characterized by Rachel Simmons in Odd Girl Out as alternative aggression.

[edit] Aggressive Behavior in Children

Definition: "Having a combative readiness, driving forceful energy or initiative, having or showing vigor, strength, or firmness" (Webster’s Dictionary, 1998).

What is Typically Expected of Children?

• Young children preparing to enter Kindergarten need to develop the socially important skill of being assertive. Examples of assertiveness include asking others for information, initiating conversation, or being able to respond to peer pressure.
• In contrast, some young children use aggressive behavior, such as hitting or biting, as a form of communication.
• Aggressive behavior can impede learning as a skill deficit, while assertive behavior can facilitate learning.
• By school age, children should learn more socially appropriate forms of communicating such as expressing themselves through verbal or written language; if they have not, this behavior may signify a disability or developmental delay

What Causes Aggressive Behavior in Children?

• Physical fear of others
• Family difficulties
• Learning, neurological, or conduct/behavior disorders
• Emotional trauma
• Exposure to violence on television, film or other media sources.

Summary of Best Practice Recommendations:(1) [American Academy of Pediatrics]; http://www.aap.org: 'Set firm, consistent limits to help children self monitor emotions and behavior; make sure all care takers agree to the same limits. Provide examples of effective and socially acceptable ways of managing anger; be careful not to reinforce aggression with aggressive forms of punishment. Also, model acceptable behavior as a caretaker by managing your own temper. Remember that occasional outbursts are normal. If aggressive behavior continues for more than a few weeks, consult a pediatrician or mental health professional.'

(2) [National Association of School Psychologists; http://nasponline.org] 'Overly aggressive behavior can signify a social skills deficit; direct instruction, modeling, and coaching can help children acquire the skill of assertion, which as a replacement behavior may help prevent aggressive behavior.' (Source: NASP Best Practices in School Psychology, 2002):

[edit] See also

• Bully
• Conflict
• Konrad Lorenz
• Male-male aggression, as component of sexual selection
• On Aggression
• Resource holding potential
• Testosterone poisoning
• Psychoanalytic Theory A Fundamental Revision
• Homo necans
• Genetics Influencing Aggression

[edit] References

• Berenbaum, S.A. & Reinisch, J.M. (1997) Early androgen effects on aggression in children and adults with congenital adrenal hyperplasia. Psychoneuroendocrinology 22:505--515.
• Moyer, KE. 1968. Kinds of aggression and their physiological basis. Communications in Behavioral Biology 2A:65-87.
• Rachel Simmons, Odd Girl Out: The Hidden Culture of Aggression in Girls, Harcourt, 2002, hardcover, 296 pages, ISBN 0-15-100604-0
• Reinisch, J.M (1977) Prenatal exposure of human foetuses to synthetic progestin and estrogen affects personality. Nature 266:561--562.
• Reinisch, J.M (1981) Prenatal exposure to synthetic progestins increases potential for aggression in humans. Science 211:1171--1173.
• Ryan B.C. & Vandenbergh J.G. (2002) Intrauterine position effects. Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev. 26:665-678.

[edit] Literature

• Grossman, D. (n.d.) "Aggression and Violence"
• Zhmurov D.V. (2005) The violence (human aggression) and literaturecs:Agrese

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