Francais | English | Espanõl

Alcohol and cancer

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Jump to: navigation, search

This article does not provide medical advice and none should be inferred. "Considerable evidence suggests a connection between heavy alcohol consumption and increased risk for cancer, with an estimated 2 to 4 percent of all cancer cases thought to be caused either directly or indirectly by alcohol<ref name=Rothman>Rothman, K.J. The proportion of cancer attributable to alcohol consumption Preventive Medicine 9(2):174-179, 1980.</ref>" indicates the NIAAA.<ref name=aa21/>" 3.6% of all cancer cases worldwide are related to alcohol drinking, resulting in 3.5% of all cancer deaths."<ref>Burden of alcohol-related cancer substantial</ref>

Contents

[edit] Alcohol as a carcinogen and cocarcinogen

The International Agency for Research on Cancer (Centre International de Recherche sur le Cancer) of the World Health Organization has classified alcohol as a Group 1 carcinogen. Its evaluation states, "There is sufficient evidence for the carcinogenicity of alcoholic beverages in humans.… Alcoholic beverages are carcinogenic to humans (Group 1)."<ref>IARC Monographs on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans: Volume 44 Alcohol Drinking: Summary of Data Reported and Evaluation</ref>

The U.S. National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (NIAAA) reports that "Although there is no evidence that alcohol itself is a carcinogen, alcohol may act as a cocarcinogen by enhancing the carcinogenic effects of other chemicals. For example, studies indicate that alcohol enhances tobacco's ability to stimulate tumor formation in rats.<ref>Garro, A.J., and Lieber, C.S. Alcohol and cancer. Annual Review of Pharmacology and Toxicology 30:219-249, 1990</ref> In humans, the risk for mouth, tracheal, and esophageal cancer is 35 times greater for people who both smoke and drink than for people who neither smoke nor drink,<ref>Blot, W.J.; McLaughlin, J.K.; Winn, D.M.; Austin, D.F.; Greenberg, R.S.; Preston-Martin, S.; Bernstein, L.; Schoenberg, J.B.; Stemhagen, A.; and Fraumeni, J.F. Smoking and drinking in relation to oral and pharyngeal cancer Cancer Research 48(11):3282-3287, 1988</ref> implying a cocarcinogenic interaction between alcohol and tobacco-related carcinogens."<ref name=aa21>National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism Alcohol and Cancer - Alcohol Alert No. 21-1993</ref>

The NIAAA emphasizes that "Although epidemiologic studies have found a clear association between alcohol consumption and development of certain types of cancer, study findings are often inconsistent and may vary by country and by type of cancer."<ref name=aa21/>

"Studies have suggested that high concentrations of acetaldehyde, which is produced as the body breaks down ethanol, could damage DNA in healthy cells. … Researchers at the National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism in Bethesda, Maryland, have added weight to this idea by showing that the damage occurs at concentrations of acetaldehyde similar to those in saliva and the gastrointestinal tract while people drink alcohol. Acetaldehyde appears to react with polyamines - naturally occurring compounds essential for cell growth - to create a particularly dangerous type of mutagenic DNA base called a Cr-Pdg adduct…"<ref>New Scientist article "Alcohol's link to cancer explained"</ref>

[edit] Alcohol as risk factor for cancers

This section reviews cancers roughly in the order in which alcohol is believed to increase risk.

[edit] Head and neck cancers

Head and neck cancers are a collective term for cancers of the:

The U.S. National Cancer Institute's (NCI) Cancer Trends Progress Report Alcohol Consumption states that drinking alcohol increases the risk of these cancers in both men and women. In general, these risks increase above the recommended maximum intake (see above). "Heavy alcohol use … leads to greater increases in risk for most of the alcohol-related cancers. … Also, using alcohol with tobacco is riskier than using either one alone, because it further increases the chances of getting cancers of the mouth, throat, and esophagus."

The International Head and Neck Cancer Epidemiology (INHANCE) Consortium co-ordinates research on this topic – see Pooled analysis investigating the effects of beer, wine and liquor consumption on the risk of head and neck cancers.

A study looking at laryngeal cancer and beverage type concluded, "This study thus indicates that in the Italian population characterized by frequent wine consumption, wine is the beverage most strongly related to the risk of laryngeal cancer."<ref>Garavello W, Bosetti C, Gallus S, Maso LD, Negri E, Franceschi S, La Vecchia C Type of alcoholic beverage and the risk of laryngeal cancer Eur J Cancer Prev 2006 Feb;15(1):69-73.</ref>

The American Cancer Society estimates that, as a proportion of all cancer deaths in the US in 2006, cancer of the mouth (oral cavity) will represent 1.3 percent, of the esophagus will be 2.4 percent, of the pharynx will constitute slightly under one-half of one percent, and of the larynx will be about six-tenths of one percent.<ref name=acs2006>American Cancer Society. Statistics for 2006</ref>

Although they are also located in the head or neck, alcohol consumption is not a risk factor for brain cancer, eye cancer, pituitary gland cancer, thymus cancer, salivary gland cancer, thyroid cancer, nasal cavity and paranasal sinus cancer, or adenoid cancer. (see below).

[edit] Breast cancer

Alcohol generally appears to increase the risk of breast cancer in women. The UK's Review of Alcohol: Association with Breast Cancer concludes that "studies confirm previous observations that there appears to be an association between alcohol intake and increased risk of breast cancer in women. On balance, there was a weak association between the amount of alcohol consumed and the relative risk."

The National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (NIAAA) concludes that "Chronic alcohol consumption has been associated with a small (averaging 10 percent) increase in a woman's risk of breast cancer<ref>Friedenreich, C.M.; Howe, G.R.; Miller, A.B.; and Jain, M.G. A cohort study of alcohol consumption and risk of breast cancer American Journal of Edidemiology 137(5):512-520, 1993.</ref><ref>Longnecker, M.P.; Berlin, J.A.; Orza, M.J.; and Chalmers, T.C. A meta-analysis of alcohol consumption in relation to risk of breast cancer Journal of the American Medical Association 260(5):652-656, 1988</ref> .<ref>Nasca, P.C.; Baptiste, M.S.; Field, N.A.; Metzger, B.B.; Black, M.; Kwon, C.S.; and Jacobson, H. An epidemiological case-control study of breast cancer and alcohol consumption International Journal of Epidemiology 19(3):532-538, 1990.</ref> According to these studies, the risk appears to increase as the quantity and duration of alcohol consumption increases. Other studies, however, have found no evidence of such a link<ref>Chu, S.Y.; Lee, N.C.; Wingo, P.A.; and Webster, L.A. Alcohol consumption and the risk of breast cancer American Journal of Epidemiology 130(5):867-877, 1989.</ref> <ref>Schatzkin, A.; Piantadosi, S.; Miccozzi, M.; and Bartee, D. Alcohol consumption and breast cancer: A cross-national correlation study International Journal of Epidemiology 18(1):28-31, 1989.</ref><ref>Webster, L.A.; Layde, P.M.; Wingo, P.A.; and Ory, H.W. Alcohol consumption and risk of breast cancer. Lancet 2(8352):724–726, 1983.</ref> .<ref name=aa21/> "

The Committee on Carcinogenicity of Chemicals in Food, Consumer Products Non-Technical Summary concludes, "The new research estimates that a woman drinking an average of two units of alcohol per day has a lifetime risk of developing breast cancer 8% higher than a woman who drinks an average of one unit of alcohol per day. The risk of breast cancer further increases with each additional drink consumed per day. … The research also concludes that approximately 6% (between 3.2% and 8.8%) of breast cancers reported in the UK each year could be prevented if drinking was reduced to a very low level (i.e. less than 1 unit/week)."

It has been reported that "Two drinks daily increase the risk of getting breast cancer by about 25 percent." (NCI) but the evidence is inconsistent. The Framingham study has carefully track individuals since the 1940s. Data from that research found that drinking alcohol moderately did not increase breast cancer risk.<ref>Wellness Facts. Wellness Letter (School of Public Health, University of California at Berkeley), 1999, 15(8), 1.</ref> Similarly, research by the Danish National Institute for Public Health found that moderate drinking had virtually no effect on breast cancer risk.<ref>Petri, A.L., et al. Alcohol intake, type of beverage, and risk of cancer in pre- and postmenopausal women Alcoholism: Clinical & Experimental Research, 2004, 28(7), 1084-1090).</ref> Breast cancer constitutes about 7.3% of all cancers.<ref name=acs2006/> Among women, breast cancer comprises 60% of alcohol-attributable cancers.<ref>Boffetta P. et al. (2006-03-23) Int J Cancer. "The burden of cancer attributable to alcohol drinking".</ref> One study suggests that women who frequently drink red wine may have an increased risk of developing breast cancer.<ref>Maggiolini M. et al. (2005) J Mol Endocrinol. "The red wine phenolics piceatannol and myricetin act as agonists for estrogen receptor alpha in human breast cancer cells"</ref>

"Folate intake counteracts breast cancer risk associated with alcohol consumption"<ref>Mayo Clinic news release June 26 2001 "Folate Intake Counteracts Breast Cancer Risk Associated with Alcohol Consumption"</ref> and "women who drink alcohol and have a high folate intake are not at increased risk of cancer".<ref>Boston University "Folate, Alcohol, and Cancer Risk"</ref> Those who have a high (200 micrograms or more per day) level of folate (folic acid or Vitamin B9) in their diet are not at increased risk of breast cancer compared to those who abstain from alcohol.<ref>"A prospective study of folate intake and the risk of breast cancer"</ref> See Folic acid for more.

[edit] Male breast cancer

Heavy alcohol consumption appears to be a low risk factor for male breast cancer, which is a very rare disease. [1] [2]

[edit] Liver cancer

The NIAAA reports that "Prolonged, heavy drinking has been associated in many cases with primary liver cancer." However, it is liver cirrhosis, whether caused by alcohol or another factor, that is thought to induce the cancer."<ref>Takada, A.; Takase, S.; and Tsutsumi, M. Alcohol and hepatic carcinogenesis. In: Yirmiya, R., and Taylor, A.N., eds. Alcohol, Immunity, and Cancer. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, 1993. pp. 187-209.</ref><ref>Villa, E.; Melegari, M.; and Manenti, F. Alcohol, viral hepatitis, and hepatocellular carcinoma. In: Watson, R.R., ed. Alcohol and Cancer. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, 1992. pp. 151–165</ref>

"The chances of getting liver cancer increase markedly with five or more drinks per day" (NCI). However, the risk is cut dramatically by consuming coffee daily.<ref>Coffee Consumption Reduces the Risk of Liver Cancer</ref> Research has now demonstrated that drinking four cups of coffee per day reduces alcoholic cirrhosis risk by 80% among both men and women of different racial categories (Klatsky et al., Coffee, cirrhosis, and tranaminase enzymes. Archives of Internal Medicine, 2006, 166, 1190-1195).

In areas of Africa and Asia, liver cancer afflicts 50 or more people per 100,000 per year, usually associated with cirrhosis caused by hepatitis viruses. In the United States, liver cancer is relatively uncommon, afflicting approximately 2 people per 100,000, but excessive alcohol consumption is linked to as many as 36% of these cases by some investigators<ref name=Rothman/><ref>Duffy, S.W., and Sharples, L.D. Alcohol and cancer risk. In: Duffy, J.L., ed. Alcohol and Illness: The Epidemiological Viewpoint. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1992. pp. 64-127.'</ref><ref name=aa21/> "Mortality rates of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) are high in Italy compared with other Western countries. … Overall, 61% of HCC were attributable to HCV [hepatitis C virus], 13% to HBV [hepatitis B virus], and 18% to heavy alcohol drinking."<ref>Franceschi S, Montella M, Polesel J, La Vecchia C, Crispo A, Dal Maso L, Casarin P, Izzo F, Tommasi LG, Chemin I, Trepo C, Crovatto M, Talamini R Hepatitis viruses, alcohol, and tobacco in the etiology of hepatocellular carcinoma in Italy Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 2006 Apr;15(4):683-9</ref> A study in the province of Brescia, northern Italy concluded, "On the basis of population attributable risks (AR), heavy alcohol intake seems to be the single most relevant cause of HCC in this area (AR: 45%), followed by HCV (AR: 36%), and HBV (AR: 22%) infection."<ref>Donato F, Tagger A, Chiesa R, Ribero ML, Tomasoni V, Fasola M, Gelatti U, Portera G, Boffetta P, Nardi G Hepatitis B and C virus infection, alcohol drinking, and hepatocellular carcinoma: a case-control study in Italy. Brescia HCC Study Hepatology 1997 Sep;26(3):579-84</ref>

Liver and intrahepatic bile duct cancers combined account for about 2.8% of all cancers.<ref name=acs2006/>

[edit] Colorectal cancer

Colorectal cancer refers to cancers of the colon or rectum. Colorectal cancer constitutes about 9.7% of all cancers.<ref name=acs2006/>The National Cancer Institute does not list alcohol as a risk factor.<ref>Colorectal Cancer: Who's at Risk?</ref>

The NIAAA reports that, "Epidemiologic studies have found a small but consistent dose-dependent association between alcohol consumption and colorectal cancer<ref>Longnecker, M.P. Alcohol consumption in relation to risk of cancers of the breast and large bowel. Alcohol Health & Research World 16(3)':223-229, 1992.</ref><ref>Longnecker, M.P.; Orza, M.J.; Adams, M.E.; Vioque, J.; and Chalmers, T.C. A meta-analysis of alcoholic beverage consumption in relation to risk of colorectal cancer Cancer Causes and Control 1(1):59-68, 1990.</ref>even when controlling for fiber and other dietary factors.<ref>Kune, S.; Kune, G.A.; and Watson, L.F. Case-control study of alcoholic beverages as etiological factors: The Melbourne Colorectal Cancer Study Nutrition and Cancer 9(1):43-56, 1987.</ref><ref>Potter, J.D., and McMichael, A.J. Diet and cancer of the colon and rectum: A case-control study Journal of the National Cancer Institute 76(4):557-569, 1986.</ref> Despite the large number of studies, however, causality cannot be determined from the available data."<ref name=aa21/>

"Heavy alcohol use may also increase the risk of colorectal cancer" (NCI). One study found that "People who drink more 30 grams of alcohol per day (and especially those who drink more than 45 grams per day) appear to have a slightly higher risk for colorectal cancer."<ref>Alcohol Consumption and the Risk for Colorectal Cancer</ref><ref>Alcohol Intake and Colorectal Cancer: A Pooled Analysis of 8 Cohort Studies</ref> Another found that "The consumption of one or more alcoholic beverages a day at baseline was associated with approximately a 70% greater risk of colon cancer."<ref>Boston University "Alcohol May Increase the Risk of Colon Cancer"</ref><ref>Su LJ, Arab L. Alcohol consumption and risk of colon cancer: evidence from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey I Epidemiologic Follow-Up Study. Nutr and Cancer. 2004;50(2):111–119.</ref><ref>Cho E, Smith-Warner SA, Ritz J, van den Brandt PA, Colditz GA, Folsom AR, Freudenheim JL, Giovannucci E, Goldbohm RA, Graham S, Holmberg L, Kim DH, Malila N, Miller AB, Pietinen P, Rohan TE, Sellers TA, Speizer FE, Willett WC, Wolk A, Hunter DJ Alcohol intake and colorectal cancer: a pooled analysis of 8 cohort studies Ann Intern Med 2004 Apr 20;140(8):603-13</ref>

One study found that "While there was a more than twofold increased risk of significant colorectal neoplasia in people who drink spirits and beer, people who drank wine had a lower risk. In our sample, people who drank more than eight servings of beer or spirits per week had at least a one in five chance of having significant colorectal neoplasia detected by screening colonoscopy.".<ref>Joseph C. Anderson, Zvi Alpern, Gurvinder Sethi, Catherine R. Messina, Carole Martin, Patricia M. Hubbard, Roger Grimson, Peter F. Ells, and Robert D. Shaw Prevalence and Risk of Colorectal Neoplasia in Consumers of Alcohol in a Screening Population Am J Gastroenterol Volume 100 Issue 9 Page 2049 Date September 2005</ref>

Other research suggests that "to minimize your risk of developing colorectal cancer, it's best to drink in moderation"<ref name=aa21/>

Drinking may be a cause of earlier onset of colorectal cancer.<ref>Brown, Anthony J. Alcohol, tobacco, and male gender up risk of earlier onset colorectal cancer</ref>

[edit] Small intestine cancer

The National Cancer Institute does not list alcohol as a possible risk factor for cancer of the small intestine. [3]

[edit] Leukemia

Leukemia (British spelling: leukaemia). There is no association between drinking alcohol and adult leukemia.

Leukemia in children may be associated with the mother's drinking of alcohol during pregnancy. "Any maternal alcohol use, versus abstinence, during pregnancy was significantly associated with childhood acute lymphoid leukemia (ALL) and acute nonlymphoid leukemia (ANLL) in analyses adjusted for potential confounders."<ref>Boston University Can Drinking During Pregnancy Raise the Risk of Childhood Leukemia?</ref><ref>Menegaux F, Steffen C, Bellec S, et al. Maternal coffee and alcohol consumption during pregnancy, parental smoking and risk of childhood acute leukemia. Cancer Detect and Prev. 2005;29(6):487–493.</ref> "Three studies have reported an increased risk [of acute myeloid leukemia (AML)] (approximately 1.5-2 fold) in mothers who drank alcoholic beverages during pregnancy. These associations have been particularly apparent in children diagnosed younger than three years of age."<ref>Malcolm A. Smith, Lynn A. Gloeckler Ries, James G. Gurney, Julie A. Ross Leukemia SEER Pediatric Monograph National Cancer Institute</ref>

Leukemia constitutes about 7.8% of all cancers.<ref name=acs2006/>

[edit] Prostate cancer

"Associations were also found between alcohol consumption and cancers of the ovary and prostate, but only for 50 g and 100 g a day."<ref name=bandolier>Alcohol consumption and cancer risk</ref> However, one study concludes, "In contrast to the majority of previous studies, we found a positive association between moderate alcohol consumption and the risk of prostate cancer. Liquor, but not wine or beer, consumption was positively associated with prostate cancer."<ref>Sesso, Howard D; Paffenbarger Jr, Ralph S; Lee, I-Min Alcohol consumption and risk of prostate cancer: The Harvard Alumni Health Study International Journal of Epidemiology 2001;30:749-755</ref>

The Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center "found that men who consumed four or more glasses of red wine per week reduced their risk of prostate cancer by 50 percent". They "found no significant effects — positive nor negative — associated with the consumption of beer or hard liquor and no consistent risk reduction with white wine, which suggests that there must be a beneficial compound in red wine that other types of alcohol lack. That compound … may be an antioxidant called resveratrol, which is abundant in the skins of red grapes.".<ref>Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center press release A Glass of Red Wine a Day May Keep Prostate Cancer Away</ref><ref>Schoonen WM, Salinas CA, Kiemeney LA, Stanford JL. Alcohol consumption and risk of prostate cancer in middle-aged men Int J Cancer. 2005 Jan 1;113(1):133-40.</ref>

Prostate cancer accounts for about 4.8% of all cancers.<ref name=acs2006/>

[edit] Lung cancer

"Globally, lung cancer is the most frequent malignancy in males, while it is the fifth most common cancer in females." [4] It is a major cause of death, constituting about 28.8% of all cancers.<ref name=acs2006/> The NIAA reports that “A few studies have linked chronic heavy drinking with cancers of the stomach, pancreas, and lungs (International Agency for Research on cancer). However, the association is consistently weak and the majority of studies have found no association (International Agency for Research on Cancer).”<ref name=aa21/>

Chronic heavy alcohol consumption possibly increases the risk of lung cancer, but the evidence is inadequate to date.<ref name=ccnsw>Cancer Council New South Wales Alcohol and Cancer</ref> Commenting on a study by Freudenheim et al<ref>Freudenheim JL, Ritz J, Smith-Warner SA, et al. Alcohol consumption and risk of lung cancer: a pooled analysis of cohort studies. Am J Clin Nutr. 2005;82(3):657–667.</ref> R. Curtis Ellison MD writes, "This study, like others, suggests a weak, positive association between consuming larger amounts of alcohol (>2 drinks a day) and lung cancer risk."<ref>Boston University Alcohol Consumption and Lung Cancer: Are They Connected?</ref>

[edit] Ovarian cancer

"Associations were also found between alcohol consumption and cancers of the ovary …, but only for 50 g and 100 g a day."<ref name=bandolier/> "Thus, the results of this study suggest that relatively elevated alcohol intake (of the order of 40 g per day or more) may cause a modest increase of epithelial ovarian cancer risk."<ref>La Vecchia C, Negri E, Franceschi S, Parazzini F, Gentile A, Fasoli M. Alcohol and epithelial ovarian cancer J Clin Epidemiol 1992 Sep;45(9):1025-30.</ref>

[edit] Pancreatic cancer

"A few studies have linked chronic heavy drinking with cancers of the stomach, pancreas, and lungs. However, the association is consistently weak and the majority of studies have found no association", write the NIAAA,<ref name=aa21/> citing the International Agency for Research on Cancer..<ref>American Cancer Society Coffee and Alcohol Do Not Pose a Risk for Pancreatic Cancer</ref> Alcohol has been reported as a possible risks in some (but not in most) studies.<ref>Ahlgren, J. D., et al. Epidemiology and risk factors in pancreatic cancer Seminars in Oncology, 1996, 23(2), 241-250.</ref> Drinking alcohol excessively is a cause of acute pancreatitis and chronic pancreatitis. "About 7 out of 10 cases of chronic pancreatitis are due to long term heavy drinking. Chronic pancreatitis is a known risk factor for cancer of the pancreas. But chronic pancreatitis that is due to alcohol doesn't increase risk as much as other types of chronic pancreatitis. So if there is a link with alcohol and pancreatic cancer risk, it is only very slight."<ref>Cancer Research UK Pancreatic cancer risks and causes</ref>

Pancreatic cancer constitutes about 5.7% of all cancers.

[edit] Endometrial cancer

"Thirteen studies to date have reported on the relationship between endometrial cancer and alcohol consumption. Only two of these studies have reported that endometrial cancer incidence is associated with consumption of alcohol; all the others have reported either no definite association, or an inverse association." (Six studies showed an inverse association; that is, drinking was associated with a lower risk of endometrial cancer) "…if such an inverse association exists, it appears to be more pronounced in younger, or premenopausal, women."<ref>UK Department of Health Review of Alcohol: Association with Endometrial Cancer p8</ref>

Endometrial plus all other uterine cancers account for about 1.9% of all cancers.<ref name=acs2006/>

[edit] Stomach cancer

As indicated above, the NIAA reports that “A few studies have linked chronic heavy drinking with cancers of the stomach, pancreas, and lungs (International Agency for Research on cancer). However, the association is consistently weak and the majority of studies have found no association (International Agency for Research on Cancer).” <ref name=aa21/>

Alcohol consumption, even when chronic and heavy, probably does not affect the risk of stomach cancer.<ref name=ccnsw/>

[edit] Non-Hodgkin lymphoma

A review of findings from nine international studies suggests that drinking alcohol reduces the risk of non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma (NHL) by 27%. The protective effect of alcohol did not vary by beverage type. "People who drink alcoholic beverages might have a lower risk of NHL than those who do not, and this risk might vary by NHL subtype. Further study designs are needed to determine whether confounding lifestyle factors or immunomodulatory effects of alcohol explain this association.".<ref>Morton, L., et al. Alcohol consumption and risk of non-Hodgkin lymphoma: A pooled analysis Lancet Oncology, June 8, 2005.</ref> The cancer is the sixth most common in the USA.

[edit] Kidney cancer (Renal cell carcinoma) (RCC)

Moderate alcohol consumption may reduce the risk of kidney cancer. "Results from our prospective cohort study of middle-aged and elderly women indicate that moderate alcohol consumption may be associated with decreased risk of RCC."<ref>Rashidkhani, B., Åkesson, A., Lindblad, P, and Wolk, A. Alcohol consumption and risk of renal cell carcinoma: A prospective study of Swedish women International Journal of Cancer, 2005 (December 10), 117(5), 848–853</ref> Another study concludes, "These findings suggest an inverse association of alcohol consumption and RCC development among women but not among men."<ref>Alexander S. Parker, James R. Cerhan, Charles F. Lynch, Abby G. Ershow and Kenneth P. Cantor Gender, Alcohol Consumption, and Renal Cell Carcinoma American Journal of Epidemiology Vol. 155, No. 5 : 455-462</ref> However, another study concludes, "No significant relationship emerged, nor any differences between the sexes." <ref>Pelucchi C, La Vecchia C, Negri E, Talamini R, Franceschi S. Alcohol drinking and renal cell carcinoma in women and men Eur J Cancer Prev 2002 Dec;11(6):543-5</ref>

[edit] Thyroid cancer

"In interview data from the U.S.A.'s Third National Cancer Survey, alcohol ingestion was associated with a higher occurrence of cancers of the breast, thyroid, and malignant melanoma. Data from other studies support the first two associations."<ref name=prolactin/> Another study suggests that drinking in moderation significantly reduces the risk of some malignant tumors such as thyroid cancer in women.<ref>Rossing, M.A., Cushing, K.L., Voight, L.F., and Wicklund, K.G. Risk of papillary thyroid cancer in women in relation to smoking and alcohol consumption Epidemiology, 2000, 11, 49-54.</ref> However, another study concludes, "A reduced risk associated with alcohol was eliminated after adjustment for smoking…".<ref>Mack WJ, Preston-Martin S, Dal Maso L, Galanti R, Xiang M, Franceschi S, Hallquist A, Jin F, Kolonel L, La Vecchia C, Levi F, Linos A, Lund E, McTiernan A, Mabuchi K, Negri E, Wingren G, Ron E. A pooled analysis of case-control studies of thyroid cancer: cigarette smoking and consumption of alcohol, coffee, and tea. Cancer Causes Control. 2003 Oct;14(8):773-85.</ref>

[edit] Salivary gland cancer

The American Cancer society does not list alcohol consumption as a possible risk factory for salivary gland cancer. [5]

[edit] Vulvar cancer

"No consistent association emerged between milk, meat, liver, alcohol and coffee consumption and risk of vulvar cancer."<ref>Parazzini F, Moroni S, Negri E, La Vecchia C, Dal Pino D, Cavalleri E Selected food intake and risk of vulvar cancer Cancer 1995 Dec 1;76(11):2291-6.</ref>

[edit] Penile cancer

Drinking alcohol, even in high quantities and frequencies, is not a risk factor for penile cancer. [6]

[edit] Testicular cancer

Testicular cancer, which is the most common form of cancer among males age 15-35, is unrelated to the consumption of alcohol. [7]

[edit] Thymus cancer

Alcohol is never considered a potential health risk for thymus cancer. [8]

[edit] Kaposi's sarcoma

Alcohol consumption is not recognized as a possible cause of Kaposi's sarcoma. [9]

[edit] Eye cancer

The National Cancer Institute does not list alcohol consumption as a possible cause of eye cancer. [10] [11]

[edit] Adrenal gland cancer

Adrenal gland cancer is not associated with any level of alcohol intake. [12]

[edit] Malignant melanoma

"In interview data from the U.S.A.'s Third National Cancer Survey, alcohol ingestion was associated with a higher occurrence of cancers of the breast, thyroid, and malignant melanoma. Data from other studies support the first two associations."<ref name=prolactin>Williams RR. Breast and thyroid cancer and malignant melanoma promoted by alcohol-induced pituitary secretion of prolactin, T.S.H. and M.S.H. Lancet. 1976 May 8;1(7967):996-9</ref> "High alcohol consumption was associated with an increased risk for melanoma, which remained after adjustment for confounders…".<ref>Amy E. Millen, Margaret A. Tucker, Patricia Hartge, Allan Halpern, David E. Elder, DuPont Guerry, IV4, Elizabeth A. Holly, Richard W. Sagebiel Nancy Potischman Diet and Melanoma in a Case-Control Study Cancer Epidemiology Biomarkers & Prevention Vol. 13, 1042-1051, June 2004</ref> Other studies suggest there is no association for melanoma. "The risk of malignant melanoma was not influenced by alcohol consumption or smoking habits."<ref>Westerdahl J, Olsson H, Masback A, Ingvar C, Jonsson N Risk of malignant melanoma in relation to drug intake, alcohol, smoking and hormonal factors Br J Cancer 1996 May;73(9):1126-31.</ref> "There was no evidence that … alcohol or polyunsaturated fats were associated with an increased risk."<ref>Kirkpatrick, Constance S.; White, Emily; Lee, John A.H. Case-Control Study of Malignant Melanoma in Washington State American Journal of Epidemiology Vol. 139, No. 9: 869-880</ref>

There is no association between alcohol and Nonmelanoma skin cancer.

[edit] Brain cancer

Alcohol consumption, even at very high levels, is not identified as a possible cause of brain cancers. [13]

[edit] Cervical cancer

There is no association between drinking alcohol and cervical cancer. [14]

[edit] Appendix cancer

Alcohol is not listed as a risk factor for appendix cancer.<ref>People Living With Cancer Appendix Cancer</ref>

[edit] Adenoid cancer

There is no evidence that alcohol is related to adenoid cancer in any way.[15] [16]

[edit] Bile duct cancer

Alcohol is not a risk factor for bile duct cancer [17]

[edit] Urethral cancer

Cancer of the urethra is not associated with the consumption of alcohol [18]

[edit] Gallbladder cancer

Drinking might be a risk factor for gallbladder cancer.<ref>Ji J, Couto E, Hemminki K. Incidence differences for gallbladder cancer between occupational groups suggest an etiological role for alcohol Int J Cancer 2005 Sep 1;116(3):492-3.</ref>

[edit] Spinal cancer

Alcohol is not identified as a risk factor for spinal cancer [19]

[edit] Ewing's family of tumors

None of Ewing’s family of tumors is related to drinking alcohol. [20]

[edit] Extragonal germ cell cancer

Drinking alcohol is not a risk factor for extragonadal germ cell cancer. [21]

[edit] Extrahepatic bile duct cancer

The National Cancer Institute does not consider alcohol consumption a risk factor for extrahepatic bile duct cancer. [22]

[edit] Fallopian tube cancer

Alcohol consumption is not a risk factor for Fallopian tube cancer. [23]

[edit] Soft tissue cancers

There is no evidence that alcohol intake has any relationship to soft tissue cancers.[24]

[edit] Bladder cancer

"Our data suggest that total and beverage-specific alcohol consumption are not associated with an increased risk of bladder cancer."<ref>Djousse L, Schatzkin A, Chibnik LB, D'Agostino RB, Kreger BE, Ellison RC. Alcohol consumption and the risk of bladder cancer in the Framingham Heart Study. J Natl Cancer Inst. 2004 Sep 15;96(18):1397-400.</ref> A Dutch study concludes, "The results of this study do not suggest an important association between alcohol consumption and bladder cancer risk."<ref>Zeegers, Maurice P. A.; Volovics, Alex; Dorant, Elisabeth; Goldbohm, R. Alexandra; van den Brandt, Piet A. Alcohol Consumption and Bladder Cancer Risk: Results from the Netherlands Cohort Study American Journal of Epidemiology Vol. 153, No. 1 : 38-41</ref> Bladder cancer represents about 2.3% of all cancers.

[edit] Bone cancer

The risk of bone cancer appears to be unrelated to consuming alcohol at any level. [25]

[edit] Hodgkin's lymphoma

The National Cancer Insitute does not identify drinking alcohol to be a risk factor for Hodgkin's lymphnoma.[26]

[edit] Anal cancer

The consumption of alcohol has not been associated with the incidence of anal cancer.[27]

[edit] Malignant mesothelioma

The consumption of alcoholic beverages has never been found to be associated with malignant mesothelioma. [http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/pdq/treatment/malignantmesothelioma/patient.

[edit] Vaginal cancer

Alcohol is not a health risk for vaginal cancer. [28]

[edit] Skin cancer

The incidence of skin cancer is unrelated to the consumption of alcohol.[29]

[edit] Central nervous system cancer (craniopharyngioma)

Alcohol consumption is not a risk factor for central nervous system cancer. [30]

[edit] Pleuropulmonary blastoma

There is no connection between drinking and pleuropulmonary blastoma according to the National Cancer Institute. [31]

[edit] Nasal cavity and paranasal sinus cancer

Drinking alcohol is not associated with nasal cavity and paranasal sinus cancer. [32]

[edit] Transitional cell cancer of renal pelvis and ureter

Alcohol consumption does not increase the risk of transitional cell cancer of renal pelvis and ureter. [33]

[edit] Pituitary gland cancer

Pituitary cancer is specifically not related to drinking behaviors. [34]

[edit] Effect of alcohol on the progress of cancer when established

A study of the influence of alcohol intake on tumor growth of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) in patients with type C cirrhosis, found that alcohol influenced tumor volume doubling time (TVDT). "In conclusion we found that alcohol intake was closely related to the tumor growth of HCC in patients with type C cirrhosis."<ref>Matsuhashi T, Yamada N, Shinzawa H, Takahashi T Effect of alcohol on tumor growth of hepatocellular carcinoma with type C cirrhosis Intern Med. 1996 Jun;35(6):443-8</ref>

A study of chick embryos suggests that alcohol stimulates their tumor growth by fueling the production of a growth factor that stimulates blood vessel development in tumors.<ref>Cancer news alert"Study Provides Clues to Alcohol's Cancer Connection"</ref><ref>Ethanol stimulates tumor progression and expression of vascular endothelial growth factor in chick embryos Jian-Wei Gu, Amelia Purser Bailey, Amanda Sartin, Ian Makey, Ann L. Brady Cancer Published Online: December 13 2004 (DOI: 10.1002/cncr.20781) Print Issue Date: January 15 2005</ref> A 2006 study in mice showed moderate drinking resulted in larger and more robust tumors.<ref>Wei Tan, Megan Shparago, Amelia P. Bailey and Jian-Wei Gu Equivalent Of 2-4 Drinks Daily Fuels Blood Vessel Growth, Encourages Cancer Tumors In Mice</ref>

A study where high amounts of alcohol were given to mice suggests that it accelerates their cancer growth by speeding up the loss of body fat and depressing immune activity - particularly that of 'killer t-cells'.<ref>BBC report Alcohol 'speeds cancer growth'</ref><ref>WSU Researcher’s Work Indicates Alcohol May Hasten Progression of Cancer</ref>

[edit] Recommended maximum alcohol intake

As outlined above, there is no recommended alcohol intake with respect to cancer risk alone as it varies with each individual cancer. See the main article Alcoholic beverages — recommended maximum intake for a list of governments' guidances on alcohol intake which, for a man, range from two to six drinks per day.

One meta-analysis suggests that risks of cancers may start below the recommended levels. "Risk increased significantly for drinkers, compared with non-drinkers, beginning at an intake of 25 g (< 2 standard drinks) per day for the following: cancers of the oral cavity and pharynx (relative risk, RR, 1.9), esophagus (RR 1.4), larynx (RR 1.4), breast (RR 1.3), liver (RR 1.2), colon (RR 1.1), and rectum (RR 1.1)" <ref>Alcohol and Serious Consequences: Risks Increase Even With “Moderate” Intake</ref><ref>Corrao G, Bagnardi V, Zambon A, et al. A meta-analysis of alcohol consumption and the risk of 15 diseases Prev Med. 2004;38(5):613–619</ref>

Alternatively, the actual quantities of alcohol associated with negative effects may be substantially higher than generally reported because participants in medical research studies tend to underestimate and underreport their usual amounts of alcohol consumption.<ref>Purdue, L., and Shoemaker, W. The French Paradox and Beyond. Sonoma, CA: Renaissance Publishing, 1992, p. 57.</ref>

When cancer is established, alcohol may affect its growth: see "Effect of alcohol on the progress of cancer when established" above. If you are a cancer patient, consult your doctor on whether you should drink alcohol.

[edit] Relative health risks

An increase in risk of a particular cancer through drinking needs to balanced against the benefits of moderate drinking on reducing heart attacks. See Alcohol and heart attacks for more. There are, of course, many ways of reducing your risk of a heart attack either without, or in addition to, drinking alcohol, such as controlling your weight and exercising. Balancing such risks is a personal decision that should be discussed with one’s own physician.

[edit] See also

[edit] References

<references/>

  • International Agency for Research on Cancer. IARC Monographs on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans. Vol. 44. United Kingdom: World Health Organization, 1988.

[edit] External links

Government and international bodies

Cancer charities

Other sites

Science sites

Retrieved from "http://en.wikivisual.com/index.php/Alcohol_and_cancer"
Personal tools