Amchitka
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| Amchitka Underground Test Site | |
|---|---|
| Image:1971-CANNIKIN-2.jpg Cannikin warhead being lowered into test shaft | |
| Type | Nuclear testing range |
| Location | |
| Operator | United States Department of Energy |
| Status | Inactive |
| In use | 1965 – 1971 |
| Remediation status | 2001 – 2025 (DoE estimate) |
| Testing | |
| Thermonuclear tests | 3 |
| Image:AmchitkaAlaskaLoc.png Location of the site | |
- For the channel in the Aleutian Islands, see Amchitka Pass.
Amchitka is a volcanic, tectonically unstable island in the Rat Islands group of the Aleutian Islands in southwest Alaska. It is about 68 kilometers long, and varies from 3 to 6 km in width.<ref name="longterm">Faller, S. H.; D. E. Farmer (1997). Long Term Hydrological Monitoring Program. Department of Energy. Retrieved on 2006-10-11.</ref> It has a maritime climate, with many storms, and mostly overcast skies.
The island was populated for more than 2,500 years by the Aleut people, but has had no permanent population since 1832. It was included in the Alaska Purchase of 1867, and has since been part of the United States. During World War II, it was used as an airfield by US forces in the Battle of the Aleutian Islands.
Amchitka was selected by the United States Atomic Energy Commission to be the site for underground tests of nuclear weapons. Three tests were conducted: Long Shot, an 80 kiloton blast in 1965, Milrow, a 1 megaton blast in 1969, and Cannikin, at "under 5 megatons" in 1971, the largest underground U.S. test ever. The tests, particularly Cannikin, were controversial, with environmental groups fearing that the test would cause severe earthquakes and tsunamis.
Amchitka is no longer used for nuclear testing, although it is monitored for the leakage of radioactive materials.
Contents |
[edit] Geography
Amchitka is the southernmost of the Rat Islands group in the Aleutian Chain,<ref name="longterm" /> located between and .<ref name="doe_model">Hassan, Ahmed; Karl Pohlmann, Jenny Chapman. Modeling Groundwater Flow and Transport of Radionuclides at Amchitka Island's Underground Nuclear Tests: Milrow, Long Shot, and Cannikin. Retrieved on 2006-10-09.</ref> It is bounded by the Bering Sea to the north and east, and the Pacific Ocean to the south and west.<ref name="doe_model" />
The eastern part of the island is a lowland plateau, with isolated ponds<ref name="powers">Powers, Charles W.; et al. Amchitka Independent Assessment Science Plan. CRESP Amchitka Oversight Committee.</ref> and gently rolling hills.<ref name="doe_model" /> There is low but abundant vegetation,<ref name="doe_model" /> consisting of mosses, lichens, liverworts, ferns, grasses, sedges, and crowberry.<ref name="powers" /> The centre of the island is mountainous, and the western end is barren and vegetation is sparse.<ref name="doe_model" />
Amchitka has a maritime climate, often foggy and windswept, with cloud cover 98 percent of the time.<ref name="doe_model" /> While temperatures are moderated by the ocean, storms are frequent.<ref name="doe_remed">Giblin, Michael O.; David C. Stahl, Jodi A. Bechtel. "Surface remediation in the Aleutian Islands: A case study of Amchitka Island, Alaska". WM '02 Conference, Tucson AZ, February 24-28, 2002. Retrieved on 2006-10-07.</ref> Geologically, the island is volcanic, being a part of a small crustal block on the Aleutian Volcanic Arc that is being torn apart by oblique subduction. It is "one of the least stable tectonic environments in the United States."<ref name="geotimes">Eichelberger, John; Jeff Freymueller, Graham Hill, Matt Patrick (March 2002). Nuclear Stewardship: Lessons from a Not-So-Remote Island. GeoTimes. Retrieved on 2006-10-11.</ref>
[edit] Early history
The human history of Amchitka dates back at least 2,500 years, with the Aleut people.<ref name="doe_remed" /><ref>Miller states "at least 9,000 years" (see Miller, Pam, "Nuclear Flashback")</ref> Human remains, thought to be of an Aleut and dating from about 1000 AD, were discovered in 1980.<ref name="fed_register">Federal Register: Notice of Inventory Completion: U.S. Department of the Interior, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Region 7, Anchorage, AK (2003-12-01). Retrieved on 2006-10-09.</ref>
Amchitka is said to have been seen and named St Makarius by Bering in 1741, was sighted by Billings in 1790, and visited by Shishmaref in 1820.<ref name="usgs_1902">Baker, Marcus (1902). Geographic Dictionary of Alaska (Bulletin of the United States Geological Survey, no 187, Series F, Geography, 27). Washington: Government Printing Office. Retrieved on 2006-10-09.</ref> Russian trappers and traders established settlements on the islands, exploiting the indigenous people,<ref name="columbia">Aleutian Islands. Columbia University Press (2005). Retrieved on 2006-10-08.</ref> whose population on the island quickly fell.<ref name="fed_register" /> From 1832, the island was never permanently inhabited,<ref name="fed_register" /> and by the time of World War II, an abandoned Russian fishing village was all that remained.<ref name="doe_lm_facts">Amchitka, Alaska, Site Fact Sheet. Department of Energy Office of Legacy Management. Retrieved on 2006-10-07.</ref>
The islands were surveyed by the North Pacific Exploring Expedition in 1855,<ref name="usgs_1902" /> and were included in the Alaska Purchase of 1867.<ref name="columbia" /> In 1913, President William Taft set aside the Aleutian chain, including Amchitka, as a wildlife preserve.<ref name="doe_lm_facts" /> The Native residents of Atka leased the island for fox hunting in 1920, and continued to use the island until the Japanese invasion of the western Aleutians in 1942.<ref name="fed_register" />
[edit] World War II
- For more details on this topic, see Battle of the Aleutian Islands.
In June 1942, the Japanese occupied some of the western Aleutian islands, and hoped to occupy Amchitka.<ref name="conn">Conn, Stetson (2000). Guarding the United States and its outposts. U.S. Army Center of Military History. CMH 4-2, Library of Congress no 62-60067. Retrieved on 2006-10-09.</ref> Eager to remove the Japanese, the Joint Chiefs of Staff agreed to move quickly to regain the territory. American planners decided to build a series of airfields to the west of Umnak, from which bombers could attack the invading forces.<ref name="cmh72_6">MacGarrigle, George L. (October 2003). The Campaigns of World War II: Aleutian Islands. U.S. Army Center of Military History. CMH Pub 72-6, paper, GPO S/N 008-029-00232-9. Retrieved on 2006-10-07.</ref>
The U.S. Army established bases at Adak and 13 other locations.<ref name="cmh72_6" /> At the War Department's suggestion, an initial reconnaissance of Amchitka was carried out in September 1942, which found that it would be difficult to build an airstrip on the island.<ref name="conn" /> Nevertheless, planners decided on December 13 that the airfield "had to be built" to prevent the Japanese from doing the same.<ref name="conn" /> A further reconnaissance mission visited Amchitka from 17-19 December, and reported that a fighter strip could be built in two to three weeks, and a main airfield in three to four months.<ref name="conn" />
The plan would go ahead.<ref name="conn" /> American forces made an unopposed landing on Amchitka on January 11, 1943. Despite facing difficult weather conditions and bombing from the Japanese, the airfield was usable by February 16.<ref name="conn" /> The Alaska Command was now 80 km away from their target, Kiska.<ref name="cmh72_6" /> The military eventually built numerous buildings, roads, and a total of three airstrips on the island,<ref name="doe_lm_facts" /> some of which would later be renovated and used by the Atomic Energy Commission.<ref name="aec_environ">Environmental Statement Cannikin. Atomic Energy Commission. Retrieved on 2006-10-11.</ref> At its peak, the occupancy of Amchitka reached 15,000 troops.<ref name="doe_lm_facts" />
The Aleutian Islands campaign was successfully completed on August 24, 1943.<ref name="cmh72_6" /> In that month, a strategic intercept station was established on the island, which remained until February 1945.<ref name="nsa_pre_1952">Pre-1952 Historical Timeline. National Security Agency. Retrieved on 2006-10-07.</ref> The Army abandoned the site in August 1950.<ref name="doe_responsib">Amchitka Island, Alaska: Potential U.S. Department of Energy site responsibilities (DOE/NV-526). Department of Energy (December 1998). Retrieved on 2006-10-09.</ref> The site later hosted an Air Force weather station in the 1950s, a White Alice telecommunication system in 1959 to 1961, and a temporary relay station in the 1960s and 1970s.<ref name="doe_lm_facts" />
[edit] Plans for nuclear testing
The Department of Defense initially considered the island for nuclear testing planned for 1951. Requiring information about the cratering potential of nuclear weapons, plans were made to detonate two 20-kiloton devices.<ref name="doe_remed" /> After drilling approximately 34 test holes, the site was deemed unsuitable,<ref name="doe_responsib" /> and the project was moved to the Nevada test site.<ref name="doe_remed" />
In the late 1950s, scientists realised that improved seismological knowledge was necessary for the detection of Soviet underground nuclear explosions.<ref name="barth">Barth, Kai-Henrik (2003). "The politics of seismology: Nuclear testing, arms control, and the transformation of a discipline". Social Studies of Science 33 (5): 743-781. DOI:10.1177/0306312703335005. Retrieved on 2006-10-08.</ref> The 1.7 kT "Rainier" test (part of Operation Plumbbob, performed elsewhere) produced strong seismic signals, but looked much like an ordinary earthquake. Dr Killian, the Special Assistant to the President for Science and Technology, formed the Panel on Seismic Improvement in 1959, which was to recommend the program that came to be known as Vela Uniform, with the twin goals of improving seismic instruments and deploying them globally, and researching in more depth the seismic effects of nuclear explosions.<ref name="simpson">Van der Vink, Gregory E., et al (February 1994). Nuclear testing and nonproliferation: The role of seismology in deterring the development of nuclear weapons. The Iris Consortium. Retrieved on 2006-10-08.</ref> The project was subsequently initiated by the Eisenhower administration.<ref name="barth" />
Together with the Atomic Energy Commission, the DoD began assessing Amitchka for use as part of the Vela Uniform tests.<ref name="doe_remed" />
[edit] Long Shot test
To conduct the Vela Uniform test on the island, Long Shot, the Department of Defense occupied Amchitka from 1964 to 1966, with the AEC providing the device, measuring instruments, and scientific support.<ref name="doe_responsib" /> The goal was "to determine the behavior and characteristics of seismic signals generated by nuclear detonations and to differentiate them from seismic signals generated by naturally occurring earthquakes."<ref name="doe_pbr">Project Baseline Report (NVNO0227) (1998-01-16). Retrieved on 2006-10-09.</ref>
Although it would not be publically announced until 18 March, 1965, senior Alaskan officials were notified the previous February.<ref name="kohlhoff">Kohlhoff, Dean W. (November 2002). Amchitka and the Bomb. University of Washington Press. ISBN 0295982551.</ref> After the devastating Great Alaska Earthquake of 27 March, 1964, the governor expressed concern about the psychological effects of the test on the populace. He was quickly reassured.<ref name="kohlhoff" />
Long Shot was detonated on October 29, 1965, and the yield was 80 kilotons. It was the first underground test in a remote area, and the first test managed by the DoD.<ref name="doe_remed" /> While there was no surface collapse,<ref name="doe_model" /> tritium and krypton were found at the surface following the test;<ref name="doe_model" /><ref name="greenpeace">Miller, Pam. Nuclear Flashback: Report of a Greenpeace Scientific Expedition to Amchitka Island, Alaska – Site of the Largest Underground Nuclear Test in U.S. History. Retrieved on 2006-10-09.</ref> this was not made public until 1969.<ref name="greenpeace" />
[edit] Milrow and Cannikin tests
Though performed as part of the Nuclear Weapons Testing Program,<ref name="doe_pbr" /> "[the] purpose of the Milrow test was to test an island, not a weapon."<ref name="milrow_film">The Milrow Test (DOE Historical Test Film 800040). Retrieved on 2006-10-09.</ref> It was a "calibration shot", intended to produce data from which the impact of larger explosions could be predicted, and specifically, to find whether the planned Cannikin shot could be performed safely. It was fired on 2 October, 1969, with an approximate yield of 1<ref name="doe_model" /> to 1.2<ref>See Miller "Nuclear Flashback" or Schneider "Amchitka's nuclear legacy".</ref> MT.
The shockwave reached the surface with an acceleration of over 35g, causing a dome of the earth's surface, approximately 3km in radius, to rise about 5m.<ref name="merritt">Merritt, Merritt (June 1971). "Ground Shock and Water Pressures from Milrow". BioScience 21 (12): 696-700. DOI:10.2307/1295751. Retrieved on 2006-10-11.</ref> The blast "turned the surrounding sea to froth" and "forced geysers of mud and water from local streams and lakes 50 feet into the air"<ref name="greenpeace">Nuclear Flashback: Report of a Greenpeace Scientific Expedition to Amchitka Island, Alaska – Site of the Largest Underground Nuclear Test in U.S. History. Retrieved on 2006-10-09.</ref> A "surface collapse feature" was formed by material collapsing into the cavity formed by the explosion.<ref name="doe_model" />
Cannikin was intended to test the design of the Spartan anti-ballistic missile (ABM) interceptor – a high-yield warhead that "produced copious amounts of x-rays and minimized fission output and debris to prevent blackout of ABM radar systems."<ref name="llnl_anniv">Accomplishments in the 1970s: Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory. Retrieved on 2006-10-09.</ref> The test would "measure the yield of the device, measure the x-ray flux and spectrum, and assure deployment of a reliable design."<ref name="uaf_gall">Schneider, Doug. Amchitka's nuclear legacy. University of Alaska Fairbanks. Retrieved on 2006-10-09.</ref>
[edit] Controversy
A few days after the Milrow test, the Don't Make A Wave Committee was organized in a Vancouver meeting. On the agenda was whether to fight another blast at the island, or whether to expand their efforts to fight all perceived threats against the environment. As he was leaving, one man gave the traditional farewell of the peace-activist movement, "Peace." "Make it a green peace," replied another member. The Committee would later become Greenpeace.<ref name="vancouver">The Greenpeace Story in: (1997) The Greater Vancouver Book: An Urban Encyclopedia. Linkman Press. ISBN 1896846009. Retrieved on 2006-10-09.</ref>
The Committee's name referred to predictions made by a Vancouver journalist named Bob Hunter, later to become Greenpeace member 000. He wrote that the test would cause earthquakes and a tsunami.<ref name="guardian">The original Mr Green. The Guardian (2005-05-04). Retrieved on 2006-10-11.</ref> The AEC considered the likelihood of the test triggering a severe earthquake "very unlikely," unless one was already imminent on a nearby fault, and considered a tsunami "even more unlikely."<ref name="aec_environ" />
Others disagreed. Russell Train, then Chairman of the Council on Environmental Quality, argued that "experience with Milrow ... does not provide a sure basis for extrapolation. In the highly nonlinear phenomena involved in earthquake generation, there may be a threshold value of the strain that must be exceeded prior to initiation of a large earthquake. ... The underground explosion could serve as the first domino of the row of dominoes leading to a major earthquake. ... as in the case of earthquakes it is not possible at this time to assess quantitatively the probability of a tsunami following the explosion."<ref name="guardian">COMMITTEE FOR NUCLEAR RESPONSIBILITY, INC. v. SCHLESINGER , 404 U.S. 917 (1971). US Supreme Court (1971-11-06). Retrieved on 2006-10-11.</ref>
In July 1971, a group called the Committee for Nuclear Responsibility filed suit against the AEC, asking the court to stop the test.<ref name="time_jul19">Round 2 at Amchitka. TIME (1971-07-17). Retrieved on 2006-10-09.</ref> The suit was unsuccessful, with the Supreme Court denying the injunction by 4 votes to 3,<ref name="time_nov15">The Amchitka Bomb Goes Off. TIME (1971-11-15). Retrieved on 2006-10-09.</ref> and Richard Nixon personally authorised the $200 million test, in spite of objections from Japan, Peru, and Sweden.<ref name="time_nov8">Green Light on Cannikin. TIME (1971-11-08). Retrieved on 2006-10-09.</ref> The Don't Make A Wave Committee chartered a boat, in which they had intended to sail to the island in protest, but due to weather conditions they were unable to reach their destination.<ref name="vancouver" />
[edit] Cannikin tested
Cannikin was detonated on 6 November, 1971. The announced yield was "less than five" megatons – the largest underground nuclear test in US history.<ref name="greenpeace" /> (Estimates for the precise yield range from 4.4 MT<ref name="novaya">Sykes, Lynn R., Graham C. Wiggins (January 1986). "Yields of Soviet Underground Nuclear Explosions at Novaya Zemlya, 1964-1976, from Seismic Body and Surface Waves". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 83 (2).</ref> to 5.2MT.<ref name="fritz">Fritz, Stacey (April 2000). The Role of National Missile Defense in the Environmental History of Alaska. University of Alaska Fairbanks.</ref>) The ground lifted 20 feet, caused by an explosive force equivalent almost 400 times the power of the Hiroshima bomb.<ref name="sfgate">Perlman, David (2001-12-17). Blast from the past: Researchers worry that radiation from nuclear test decades ago may be damaging marine life today. Retrieved on 2006-10-11.</ref> Subsidence and faulting at the site created a new lake, over a mile wide.<ref name="doe_model" /> The explosion caused a seismic shock of 7.0 on the Richter scale, causing rockfalls and turf slides of a total of 35,000 square feet.<ref name="greenpeace" /> Though earthquakes and tsunamis predicted by environmentalists did not occur,<ref name="time_nov15" /> a number of small tectonic events did occur in the following weeks, thought to be due to the interaction of the explosion with local tectonic stresses.<ref name="engdahl">Engdahl, E. R. (December 1972). "Seismic effects of the MILROW and CANNIKIN nuclear explosions". Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America 62 (6): 1411-1423.</ref>
[edit] 1973 and beyond
The DoE withdrew from the island in 1973, though scientists continued to visit the island for monitoring purposes.<ref name="doe_responsib" /> In 2001, the DoE returned to the site to remove environmental contamination. Drilling mud pits were stabilized by mixing with clean soil, covering with a polyester membrane, topped with soil and re-seeded.<ref name="doe_lm_facts" />
Concerns have been expressed that new fissures may be opening underground, allowing radioactive materials to leak into the ocean.<ref name="sfgate" /> A 1996 Greenpeace study found that Cannikin was leaking both plutonium and americium into the environment,<ref name="greenpeace" /> though a 2004 University of Alaska, Fairbanks study reported that "There were no indications of any radioactive leakage, and all that was really wonderful news."<ref name="uaf_gall" /> Similar findings are reported by a 2006 study, which found that levels of plutonium were "were very small and not significant biologically".<ref name="burger">Burger, J, et al (Oct 2006). "Radionuclides in marine macroalgae from Amchitka and Kiska Islands in the Aleutians: establishing a baseline for future biomonitoring". J Environ Radioact. PMID 17029666.</ref>
The Department of Energy continue to monitor the site as part of their remediation program. This is expected to continue until 2025, after which the site is intended to become a restricted access wildlife preserve.<ref name="doe_bemr">Amchitka Island. Department of Energy. Retrieved on 2006-10-11.</ref>
| Name | Date (GMT)<ref name="tests_to_1992">United States nuclear tests: July 1945 through September 1992. Department of Energy. Retrieved on 2006-10-11.</ref> | Location<ref name="oceano">Johnson, "Mark". Results from the Amchitka Oceanographic Survey. University of Alaska, Fairbanks. Retrieved on 2006-10-11.</ref> | Yield<ref name="oceano" /> | Type<ref name="oceano" /> |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Long Shot | 1965-10-29 21:00 | 80kT | 2343 ft shaft | |
| Milrow | 1969-10-02 22:06 | ~ 1MT | 4002 ft shaft | |
| Cannikin | 1971-11-06 22:00 | < 5MT | 6104 ft shaft |
[edit] Notes and references
<references />
[edit] External links
The following links are to Department of Energy films about the Amitchka test facility. The videos include footage of the tests.
- The Amchitka Program
- Project Long Shot
- The Milrow Test
- Project Cannikin Review
- Amchitka Island Remediation Activities
