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The Angevin Empire is a modern term defining retrospectively the lands of the Plantagenets: Henry II, Richard I and John Lackland. At its largest extent, that "so called empire" consisted of the Kingdom of England, the duchies of Normandy, Gascony and Aquitaine (also called Guyenne<ref>When taking of Aquitaine it is required to be careful that it isn't the modern region nor the antic Aquitaine (the area populated by the Aquitanians as described by Strabo and Julius Caesar) but rather the feudal Duchy located north of Gascony. This Duchy didn't include cities like Bayonne, Pau or Auch the historic capital of Gascony and of the Aquitanians.</ref>) as well as of Anjou, Poitou, Maine, Touraine, Saintonge, Marche, Perigord, Limousin, Nantes and Quercy. While the duchies and counties were held with various levels of vassalage to the King of France, the Plantagenets held control over Brittany, Wales, Toulouse, Scotland and Ireland to varying levels of power although they were not formal parts of the "Empire". Further claims had been laid over Berry and Auvergne.<ref>An introduction to the Angevin Empire at xenophongroup.</ref><ref>Another introduction from "Norman World".</ref>

Contents 1 The term 'Angevin Empire' 2 Geography and administration 2.1 Economy and revenue 3 Formation of the Angevin Empire (1135 - 1156) 3.1 Context before the Anarchy 3.2 The Anarchy and the question of the Norman succession 3.3 Accession of Henry and nominal foundation of the Angevin Empire 4 Expansions of the Angevin Empire 4.1 Nantes 4.2 Castles and strongholds in France 4.3 Flanders 4.4 Brittany 4.5 Scotland 4.6 Wales 4.7 Ireland 4.8 Toulouse 5 The highest moments of power (1160 - 1199) 5.1 Philip II Augustus and Richard I the Lionheart 5.2 The Third Crusade 5.3 Richard I captive of the Holy Roman Emperor 5.4 Richard freed, recovering his lands, and finally dying 6 John's reign, the collapse (1199 - 1217). 6.1 The Lusignans' case and decisive defeats 6.2 Campaigns in the British Isles and return to France 6.3 Capetians in England 7 Cultural Influence 8 See also 8.1 Consequent events 8.2 Important Figures of the time 8.2.1 House of Normandy 8.2.2 House of Anjou 8.2.3 House of Capet 8.2.4 House of Dunkeld 9 Appendixes, notes and references.

[edit] The term 'Angevin Empire'

As far as historians know, there was no contemporary term for the region under Angevin control, however descriptions such as 'our kingdom and everything subject to our rule whatever it may be' were used.<ref name= AngevinEmpire>John Gillingham: "The Angevin Empire" page 2, second edition, Arnold Editions.</ref> The term 'Angevin Empire' was coined by Kate Norgate in her 1887 publication, "England under the Angevin Kings"<ref>"England Under the Angevin Kings" by Kate Norgate is available at "Questia".</ref>. In France, the term "Espace Plantagenêt" is sometimes used to describe the fiefdoms the Plantagenêts had acquired.<ref>Read "Noblesse de l'espace Plantagenêt (1154-1224)", editions "Civilisation médiévale" in French.</ref>

With the adoption of the Angevin label this term marked a re-evaluation of times, considering that both English and French influences were spread throughout the dominion in the half century the union lasted. The term Angevin itself is the adjective applied to the residents of Anjou and its historic capital, Angers, the Plantagenets were from Anjou hence the term.<ref>Definition of "Angevin" from "Laboratoire d'Analyse et de Traitement Informatique de la Langue Française".</ref>

The use of the term Empire has arisen controversy amongst some historians. As it is an assemblage of the inherited and acquired lands of Henry there is some question as to whether or not a common identity existed within the dominions.

[edit] Geography and administration

In theory, the Angevin Empire was comprised of the lands of England, Normandy, Anjou, Maine, Tours, Poitiers, Saintonge, Limousin, Guyenne and Gascony. The titles of King of England, Duke of Normandy, Count of Anjou, Count of Maine, Duke of Gascony and Duke of Aquitaine and many others were in use but there was no such title as Emperor contrary to what the term Angevin Empire may imply<ref>It is true Maltida held the title of Empress for a time, as she used to be married to the Emperor, but it was before the latter's death and her marriage with Geoffroy Plantagenet. Although Henry Plantagenet was sometimes referred as Henry FitzEmpress (Son of the Empress) he wasn't Emperor himself.</ref>.

Mapping the Angevin Empire alone is no simple thing. Sometimes the frontiers were well known and easy to draw like the one between the royal Demesne of the King of France and the Duchy of Normandy while elsewhere things weren't that clear, especially as regards the eastern frontier of Aquitaine where there often was a difference between the frontiers Henry II and, later, Richard I claimed and the ones where their real power ended. The maps become even more difficult to read when it comes to draw the lines between the various states of the Angevin Empire, any map showing the whole area in a single block (or in a single color) would be extremely misleading in that it would imply the whole land was submitted to a unique power.

• England was under a rather firm control and was probably one of the most controlled areas, which can't be said of any other states of the Angevin Empire. Shires were an efficient way to govern the land and enforce the will of the King. Nowhere in the other lands of the Angevin Empire was such organization present. The Sheriff enforced the will of the King and made sure the Common Law, largely centralised by William the Conqueror, was respected. A Justiciar was appointed by the King to make his voice respected while he was away. Under William's rule, Anglo-Saxon nobles were often replaced by Anglo-Norman ones who couldn't own large expanses of contiguous lands, which made it much harder for them to rise against the King and defend all of their lands in the same time. Earls held a status similar to that of the continental counts. Yet none of them were really strong enough to be a match for the King; in the end, earldoms like Herefordshire or Shropshire were reduced to mere shires with nobles at their heads. Several castles were also built by the Normans who didn't have enough men to rule England. Castles were then a source of authority in the extent that common folks would become cowed by seeing them overlooking their cities. Norman soldiers posted inside could go and settle matters with any rebels brutally.<ref> Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, Version E, entry of 1137: "And they filled the whole land with these castles. They burdened the unhappy people of the country with forced labour on the castles. And when the castles were made they filled them with wicked men."</ref>

• In Anjou, for instance, two kinds of officials enforced the rule: prévots or seneschals. These were based at Tours, Chinon, Baugé, Beaufort, Brissac, Angers, Saumur, Laudun, Lauch, Langeais and Montbazon. However the other places weren't administrated by the Plantagenets but by other families.

• In Maine, the land of the "seigneurs", nobles were the only authority below the Count who was represented by the seneschal of Anjou as Maine had no officials of its own. Although the nobles were supposed to obey the count and his representative, they retained a firm control over their lands. There was no such thing as the shires of England.

• Gascony was certainly a very loosely administrated region, with officials only stationed in Entre-deux-mers, Bayonne, Dax, as well as on the pilgrimage route to Santiago de Compostela and on river Garonne up to Agen. The rest of Gascony was left without an administrator, and was a large area compared to several other provinces. The southern part of Gascony was itself a fairly savage land, which has retained up to now its nickname of Savage Frontier and in which only a few cities like Tarbes, Lourdes, Luz-Saint-Sauveur and Mauvezin had some form of administration. The rest consisted only of mountains and large forests and when an army tried to submit the people to foreign rule, the peasantry would often simply cross the Pyrenees and come back later. This part of Gascony was unattractive to rule because of the landscape and it was difficult to install a firm rule on it.

• As for Poitou and Guyenne, the castles were concentrated in Poitou where there were official representatives while in the eastern provinces of Perigord and Limousin there simply were none. Indeed there were lords that ruled these regions as if they were "sovereign princes" and they had powers in fields such as minting coins. Richard the Lionheart himself met his demise in Limousin.

• Normandy was probably one of the most administrated state of the Angevin Empire. prévots and vicomtes lost of their importance to the advantage of baillis who held both judicial and executive powers. They were introduced in the 12th century in Normandy and organised the country more like the sheriffs did in England. The Ducal authority was strong on the frontier between the Royal Demesne and the Duchy but was more loose elsewhere.

In Aquitaine and Anjou although Ducal authority did exist it was not homogeneous. For example, the family of the Lusignans, very powerful in these lands, proved themselves opponents of importance to the Plantagenets.

• Scotland was an independent Kingdom, but after the disastrous campaign led by William the Lion, garrisons were established in the castles of Edinburgh, Roxburgh, Jedburgh and Berwick as defined in the Treaty of Falaise.

• Toulouse was held through vassalage by the Duke of Aquitaine but no firm rule was ever established. The city was administrated by the capitulaires who formed the Chapitre. They were in charge of enforcing the will of the Count in the city and beyond. The members of the common house were probably elected and had seats in the Capitolium with 24 members. The Chapitre was in charge of controlling the police, trades and impositions.<ref>a site in French about the "Capitulaires", or "Capitouls" in local speech.</ref>. The county was fairly tolerant of religious beliefs, and this brought people from many different confessions together thus causing its fall later during the Albigensian Crusade<ref>A description of the crusade.</ref>.

• Brittany, a region where nobles were traditionally very independent, was under firm Plantagenet control. Nantes was under undisputed Angevin rule while the Plantagenets often involved themselves in Breton affairs and installed archbishops and imposed authority on the region.

• Ireland was ruled by the Lord of Ireland who had a hard time imposing his rule at first. Dublin and Leinster were Angevin stronghold while Cork, Limerick and Ulster were taken by Cambro-Norman nobles. Ireland experienced a strong cultural transformation in those times, becoming less Celtic. What could have been called Celtic Christianism evolved even more toward Roman Catholicism.<ref> "Seán Duffy in Medieval Ireland observes that 'there is no contemporary depiction of it [the invasion] as Anglo-Norman or Cambro-Norman, or, for that matter, Anglo-French or Anglo-Continental. Such terms are modern concoctions, convenient shorthands, which serve to emphasize the undoubted fact that those who began to settle in Ireland at this point were not of any one national or ethnic origin' (pp 58-9)." Information retrieved from wikipedia's page on "Norman Ireland"</ref>

• Wales obtained good terms provided it paid homage to the Plantagenets and recognised them as lords. However it remained almost self ruling. It supplied the Plantagenets with knives and longbows which England later used with great success.

[edit] Economy and revenue

Discussing the concept of economics in the 12th century is no less than an extremely dubious assertion. The only real preoccupation of the princes was their income, which they used to build castles and finance their costly wars.

The economics of the Angevin Empire was quite complicated due to the varying political structure of the fiefdoms. Areas like England which had a centralized power structure generated larger revenues than the more loosely administrated regions such as Limousin; where local princes could mint their own coins.

It is commonly believed that England was the wealthiest region within the Angevin Empire and was known as the "miltch cow". Also, due to the high level of administration of England and, to a lesser extent, Normandy, it was only area where revenue was the fairly consistent.

The English revenues themselves varied from a year to year:

• When Henry II Plantagenet became king, his income for England were a mere £10,500 a year or half of what the English revenue were under Henry I Beauclerc. This was due in part to The Anarchy and as well as Stephen of Blois' loose rule. As time went on Henry II installed his authority and incomes went up consequently to £22,000 a year.
• When it was time to prepare for the crusade, revenues increased to £31,050 per year but they dropped down to £11,000 a year when Richard I the Lionheart was away.
• Under John Lackland incomes had remained stable for a time at £22,000 a year. In order to pay for the reconquest of France, he registered an income of £83,291 and yet that didn't include all sources like the Jews which could have increased it to £145,000 that year of 1211.

In Ireland, the revenue was fairly low, a mere £2,000 for 1212 however, records are missing for thr most part. For Normandy, there were a lot of fluctuations relative to the politics of the Duchy. In 1180, the Norman revenues were only £6,750 while they reached £25,000 a year in 1198, higher than in England<ref>"Crises, Revolutions and Self-sustained Growth: Essays in European Fiscal History 1130 - 1830", editions Stamford.</ref>. What was more impressive was the fact the Norman population was considerably smaller than England's which was estimated at 3.5 million as opposed to 1.5 million in Normandy <ref>"King John, new interpretations", editions S.D. Church.</ref>. On this regard, if there was a "milch cow" in wasn't England but rather Normandy.

For Aquitaine, Anjou and Gascony there was no record at all about revenues. It was not that these regions were poor; there were large vineyards, important cities and iron mines but the feudal nature of this area made "feudal states within the feudal state". This is what Ralph of Diceto, an English chronicler, wrote about Aquitaine.

Aquitaine overflows with riches of many kinds, excelling other parts of the western world to such an extent that historians consider it to be one of the most fortunate and flourishing of the provinces of Gaul. Its fields are fertile, its vineyards productive and its forests teem with wild life. From the Pyrenees northwards the whole countryside is irrigated by the River Garonne and other streams, indeed it is from these lifegiving waters that the province takes its name.

[edit] Formation of the Angevin Empire (1135 - 1156)

[edit] Context before the Anarchy

See also: Norman conquest of England

The idea of a union between England, Normandy and Anjou was already in place during the time of Henry I Beauclerc who married his daughter, Matilda, the widow of Emperor Henry V, off to Geoffrey of Anjou in 1127. He negotiated with Fulk V, Geoffrey's father, who was also behind this marriage, after all it was his dynastic line that would absorb Henry's.

The Counts of Anjou had been vying for power in northwestern France for a long time. The Counts were recurrent enemies of the Dukes of Normandy and of the Dukes of Brittany and sometimes even of the King himself. Fulk IV claimed rule over Touraine, Maine and Nantes however Tours was certainly proved to be the only effective ruler as the construction of the castles of Chinon, Loches and Loudun exemplify. Fulk IV married his son Fulk V to Eremburga, the heiress of Maine thus unifying it with Anjou. While the dynasty of the Angevins was successful, their rivals, the Normans, had conquered England. The Poitevins had become Dukes of Aquitaine as well as Dukes of Gascony and the Count of Blois became Count of Champagne. In 1128, Fulk V was made heir to the Kingdom of Jerusalem and his son, Geoffrey V of Anjou, was made heir to the Kingdom of England.

Henry I, of England, had defeated his brother, Robert Curthose, made an enemy of Robert's son - William Clito - who became Count of Flanders in 1127 and used his paternal inheritance to claim the Duchy of Normandy and the Kingdom of England. Henry I tried to establish an alliance with Anjou against Flanders by marrying his only legitimate son, William Adelin, to Fulk V's daughter but the former died in the White Ship disaster in 1120. Then, Henry I married his daughter Matilda to Geoffrey V, however the Anglo-Normans had to accept Matilda's inheritance to the throne of England. There had been only one occurrence of a woman ascending the throne before, Urrace, and it wasn't an encouraging precedent although in January 1127, the Anglo-Normans barons and prelates recognized Matilda as heiress to the throne in an oath. On June 17 1128, the wedding was celebrated in Le Mans. From an Angevin point of view, the son of a count marrying the daughter of a king and the widow of an emperor was a political triumph however, the Normans saw Geoffrey V as a weak leader only to supply Matilda with sons. Orderic Vitalis wrote, in 1141, that he was meant to be "his wife's hired soldier".

[edit] The Anarchy and the question of the Norman succession

See also: The Anarchy

While Matilda was the undisputed heiress of Henry I of England by law, enforcing it was not as simple the oath was. To secure the succession, castles and supporters were need in both England and Normandy. It is believed that they unsuccessfully tried to obtain both. Had they succeeded, there would've been two authorities in England; King Henry I and his daughter, Matilda. Henry I didn't allow this happen by refusing to hand over any castle to Empress Matilda|Matilda as well as confiscated the lands of nobles he suspected of supporting Geoffrey V and Matilda. By 1135, there were major disputes between Henry I and Matilda which drove the barons that were loyal to Henry I against Matilda. Although, Henry I, "Beauclerc", had been a competent King, like many, he couldn't settle the question of his succession. In November 1135, when Henry "Beauclerc" was dying, Matilda was with her husband in Maine and Anjou while Stephen was in Boulogne. Stephen rushed to England upon the news of the Henry I's death and was crowned King of England in December 1135.<ref>David Carpenter: "The Struggle for Mastery, the Penguin History of Britain 1066-1284" page 163, Penguin History Editions.</ref> However, Geoffrey V and Stephen were not the only ones involved in the struggle for the title of King, Stephen's elder brother Theobald was also offered the throne by several barons like Robert of Gloucester (Matilda's illegitimate brother). As soon as Stephen was made king, Robert of Gloucester and the barons who aligned with him no longer supported Theobald but joined Stephen instead.

Geoffrey sent Matilda alone to Normandy, first ,in a diplomatic mission in order to get recognized Duchess of Normandy to replace Stephen. However, Geoffrey V wasn't far behind, at the head of his army, and quickly captured several fortresses in southern Normandy which he never lost again. It was then that an Angevin noble, Robert of Sablé, rose up against Geoffrey V opening a front on his rear causing him to withdraw to Anjou and end the revolt. When Geoffrey V returned to Normandy in September 1136, the region was plagued with local struggles and infighting among the barons. Stephen was not able to travel to Normandy and as result, the situation remained chaotic. Geoffrey had found new allies with the Count of Vendôme and most importantly, the Duke of Aquitaine. At the head of a new army and prepared to conquer Normandy, he was wounded and was forced to return to Anjou once more, adding to that, an outbreak of diarrhea plagued his army. Orderic Vitalis stated "the invaders had to run for home leaving a trail of filth behind them". Stephen finally arrived in Normandy in 1137 and restored order, but he had lost much of credibility to the eyes of Robert of Gloucester who supported Geoffrey. Geoffrey took control of the strongholds of Caen and Argentan without resistance but he now had to defend Robert's possession in England against the anger of the King. In 1139, Robert and Matilda crossed the channel and arrived in England while Geoffrey kept the pressure on Normandy. Stephen was captured in February 1141 at the Battle of Lincoln which prompted the collapse of Normandy. Geoffrey was now controlling almost all of Normandy. Stephen's only hope was, ironically, the King of France because of the risk of a union of England with Normandy and Anjou could present to him. The French King, Louis VII, made a move, but in the opposite direction; towards Toulouse. Previously he had married Eleanor of Aquitaine becoming Duke of Aquitaine thus adding to his Royal Domain, the lands of Aquitaine in 1137 so he had no interest in the shift in Norman politics since he already ruled vast and powerful territories. Finally, while Geoffrey V asserted control of Normandy, Matilda was suffering defeats against Stephen's allies. At Winchester, Robert of Gloucester was captured while covering Matilda's retreat where she then would exchange Stephen for Robert. In 1142, Geoffrey V was pleaded to cross the channel and assist Matilda but he refused. He became more interested in Normandy. Following the capture of Avranches, Mortain and Cherbourg, Geoffrey V launched a decisive attack on Rouen capturing it in 1144. He then anointed himself as Duke of Normandy and in exchange of the cession of Gisors to Louis VII was formally recognized by the King. Geoffrey V, satisfied with his new role in Normandy, made no effort to assist Matilda in England even as she was on the verge of defeat. Helie (Elias), Geoffrey's younger brother, felt that he deserved his fair share and asked for Maine. No sooner had that issue been settled, another Angevin noble rebelled;Gerald Berlay, newly appointed seneschal of Poitou by Louis VII, led a revolt in southern Anjou against Geoffrey V. When Geoffrey V imprisoned Gerald, Louis VII was furious.

[edit] Accession of Henry and nominal foundation of the Angevin Empire

In 1150, it was obvious the strongest power was in the hands of the Capetian king himself. Louis VII had a direct control on the Royal Demesne and was married to Eleanor of Aquitaine and henceforth held the title of Duke of Aquitaine possessing one third of France. There were of course other nobles in the game like Geoffrey V Plantagenet who was the undisputed Count of Anjou as well as Duke of Normandy. Stephen was King of England. Theobald the Great was Count of Blois known as Theobald IV and Count of Champagne as Theobald II. Raymond V of Toulouse was Count of Toulouse and held one of the largest states in France. Yet none of these princes were in the same league of power as Louis VII.

Stephen had by no means given up his claims on Normandy, even though Louis VII had clearly recognised Geoffrey Plantegenet as duke. An alliance between the two Kings was possible because of the issue over Gerald Berlay. Louis VII agreed to recognise Henry Plangenet as the new duke in 1151 in exchange of concessions in Norman Vexin. The death of Geoffrey, aged only 38, made Henry Plantagenet count of Anjou in 1151. According to the story told by William of Newburgh (in the 1190s) Geoffrey declared that Henry would have to hand down Anjou to one of his young brothers, also called Geoffrey, if he was to win the crown of England. To compel Henry to make an oath, Geoffrey V had ordered to be left without a sepulture until Henry swore that he would renounce Anjou if he was to acquire England.

In March 1152, Louis VII and Eleanor of Aquitaine divorced under the pretext of consanguinity. It was Eugene III that divorced the couple who had not been getting on well at all for a while. Eleanor was left Duchess of Aquitaine but under rule of the King in the terms of the divorce and eight weeks later she married Henry Plantagenet who was no less related to her than was Louis VII. With Henry becoming Duke of Aquitaine and Gascony it was obvious he would never give Anjou up to his brother, since it would mean splitting his land into two parts. A coalition of all of Henry's enemies was set up by Louis VII: King Stephen of England and his son Eustace IV of Boulogne (married to Louis' sister), Henry the Liberal (promised to Eleanor's daughter), Robert of Dreux (Louis VII's brother) and finally Geoffrey who had no hope of acquiring Anjou anymore.

In July 1152, Capetian troops attacked Aquitaine while Louis VII himself, along with Eustace IV, Henry of Champagne and Robert of Dreux attacked Normandy. Geoffrey raised a revolt in Anjou while Stephen attacked Angevin loyalists in England. Several Anglo-Norman nobles switched allegiance, feeling the forthcoming disaster. Henry Plantagenet was about to sail for England to pursue his claim when his lands were attacked. He first reached Anjou and compelled Geoffrey to surrender and then took the decision to sail for England in January 1153 in order to meet Stephen. Luckily enough Louis VII fell ill and had to retire from the conflict while Henry Plantagenet's defences held against his enemies. After seven months of both battles and political gambles he failed to get rid of King Stephen. Eustace IV died in dubious circumstances, "struck by the wrath of god", this was the last straw and King Stephen gave up the struggle by ratifying the Treaty of Winchester. He made Henry Plantagenet his heir on condition that the land possessions of his family were guaranted in England and France, these were the terms Matilda had refused after her victory at Lincoln. Henry Plantagenet became Henry II of England in December 1154. Subsequently the question of his oath about Anjou and his brother Geoffrey was raised again. Henry II received a dispension from Pope Adrian IV under the pretext the oath had been forced upon him, Henry II proposed compensations to Geoffrey at Rouen in 1156, but the latter refused and returned to Anjou to rise once again against Henry II. If Geoffrey had a solid moral claim, his position was nonetheless very weak. Louis VII wouldn't interfere since Henry II paid homage to the King of France for Normandy, Anjou and Aquitaine as vassal. Henry II crushed Geoffrey's revolt and he had to be satisfied with an annual pension.

[edit] Expansions of the Angevin Empire

The defeat of Geoffrey in 1156 is considered to be the time when the Plantagenet fiefdom was established. Yet attempts of expansion went on. Considering the absence of imperial title, the defining point of the so called Angevin Empire is totally subjective. Henry II clearly claimed further lands but there were unsettled issues such as the creation of a ring of vassal states, especially around England and Normandy as buffers. The most obvious ones were Scotland, Wales, Brittany and Flanders, which could be also used as starting points for further expansions.

David of Scotland had taken advantage of The Anarchy to seize Cumberland, Westmorland and Northumberland. In Wales important leaders like Rhys of Deheubarth and Owain of Gwynedd which denounced the vassal status to England had emerged. In Brittany, there is no evidence that the Duke of Brittany, namely Eudes, had recognised the Norman overlordship which had been imposed since William the Conqueror. Two vital frontier castles that Stephen had handed down to the Count of Perche- Moulins-la-Marche and Bonmoulins- had never been taken back by Geoffrey V Plantagenet and were in the hands of Robert of Dreux. Thierry, Count of Flanders had joined the alliance formed by Louis VII in 1153. Further south, the Count of Blois had demanded Tours in exchange of his support against Henry II, and even if he failed to get it he still acquired Amboise. From Henry II's perspective, there were some issues to solve.

[edit] Nantes

In 1156, there was a revolt in Nantes against the local count, Hoël and so the citizens themselves called for Henry II's help. The latter seized this opportunity to pursue the familial claim which Fulk IV had laid to this city. Geoffrey (Henry II's brother again) was made new Count of Nantes by Henry II, but he did not hold the position for long, as he died in 1158 at only 24 years of age. In 1158, Conan IV briefly ruled as Count of Nantes however, Henry II took the title that same year.

[edit] Castles and strongholds in France

Louis VII allowed Henry II to buy Vernon and Neufmarché back in 1154. From now on this new strategy regulated the Plantagenets-Capetians relationship. Louis VII couldn't deny his own unsuccessful attempt at breaking Henry II down. Because of the Angevin control of England in 1154 it was pointless to object to the superiority of cumuled Angevine forces over the Capetin ones. Yet, Henry II wouldn't stop claiming the land until the Norman Vexin was entirely recovered. Thomas Beckett was sent as embassador to Paris in 1158 for leading negotiations and he displayed all the wealth the Angevins could boast of to the Capetians. Louis VII's daughter, Margaret who was still a baby was promised to Henry the "future young king", the elder son of Henry II. Although a baby Margaret was old enough to be given a dowry at her wedding. This dowry happened to be the Norman Vexin. Henry II was given back the castles of Moulins-la-Marche and Bonmoulins. Theobald the Good handled Amboise back to him.

[edit] Flanders

Although Thierry of Alsace had taken part in the assaults against Henry II along with Louis VII the wool trade between England and Flanders favoured a cordial reliationship between the two men up to the point that the Count appointed Henry II guardian of his lands so that he undertake on a pilgrimage to Jerusalem without concerns. In 1159, William of Blois died without an inheritance, he was Stephen's last son, leaving the titles of Count of Boulogne and Count of Mortain vacant. Henry II absorbed the County of Mortain but wanted to grant Boulogne to Thierry's son, Matthew, who married Marie of Boulogne. The title of Count of Boulogne was accompanied with important manors in London and Colchester.

England received much of its wool from Flanders via the port of Boulogne. An alliance with these two counties was then logicaly sealed by this wedding and the concessions of manors. Henry II had to get Marie out of her convent first, which had been a common practice in England since the Normans. In 1163, the few official remaining documents showed Henry II and Thierry renewed the treaty signed by William the Conqueror. Flanders would provide Henry II with knights in exchange of an annual tribute in money.

[edit] Brittany

In Brittany, the duke Conan III declared his son Hoël a bastard and disinherited him. It was his sister Bertha who became Duchess of Brittany making her husband of the time, Eudes, nominally Duke. Hoël was co-ruler with his brother in law then, and had to be satisfied as Count of Nantes. Bertha was the widow of Alan de Bretagne with whom she already had a son, Conan. Conan who had become Earl of Richmond in 1148 was Henry II's perfect candidate to become the new Duke of Brittany as any Duke with possessions of importance in England could be easier to control.

In 1156, the Duchy of Brittany was hit by civil unrest which led to Conan IV's accession as duke and Geoffrey became Count of Nantes at this moment. In 1158, Geoffrey died and Conan IB became the new Count of Nantes until Henry II took the title for himself by munstering an army in Avranches to threaten Conan. In 1160 Henry II married his cousin Margaret of Scotland to Conan in an arranged wedding. He then appointed the archbishop of Dol. Without a tradition of a strong rule in Brittany, nobles grew discontent and not just Conan was upset with Henry II. This led to a revolt that Henry II answered in 1166. He betrothed his own 7 year-old son -Geoffrey- to Conan's daughter and later forced Conan to abdicate for his future son in law, making of Henry II the ruler of Brittany yet not the Duke. Breton nobles strongly opposed that and more attacks on Brittany followed first in 1167 then in 1168 and finally in 1173. Each of these invasions were followed by confiscations and Henry II installed his men in the place, William Fitzhamo and Rolland of Dinan. Although it was not formally part of the Plantagenet fiefdom Brittany was under firm control.

[edit] Scotland

Henry II met Malcolm IV in 1157 about Cumberland, Westmorland and Northumberland previously seized by his grandfather -Saint David-. In 1149, before Henry II became powerful, he made an oath to Saint David that the lands north of Newcastle should belong to the King of Scotland forever. Malcolm reminded him of this oath but Henry II did not compel. There is no evidence that Henry II got a dispension from the pope this time, as William of Newburgh put it.

...prudently considering it was the king of England who had the better of the argument by reason of his much greater power.

.

Malcolm IV gave up and paid homage in return of Huntingdon which he inherited from his father<ref>Duncan, p.72; Barrow, p. 47; William of Newburgh in SAEC, p. 239. Can also be found in other sources without much troubles.</ref>, he can be regarded as a faithful knight as he joined Henry II's expeditions to Wales and Toulouse. Considering Henry II broke his oath it was normal he didn't expect the Scots to respect their own though and in 1163 Henry II asked Malcolm IV to hand hostages as a guarantee, including Malcolm's youngest brother -David-.

William the Lion, the next King of Scotland held grief toward Henry II since he was given Northumberland by Saint David in 1152 and therefore lost it to Henry II when Malcolm IV handed it back in 1157.

As a part of the coalition set by Louis VII, William the Lion first invaded Northumberland in 1173 and then again in 1174, as a result he was captured near Alnwick and had to sign the tough Treaty of Falaise. English garrisons, paid by Scottish revenues, were to be set in the castles of Edinburgh, Roxburgh, Jedburgh and Berwick. Scotland was from then under firm control just like Brittany was. Richard I of England would end the Treaty of Falaise in exchange of money to fund his crusade.

[edit] Wales

Rhys of Deheubarth, also called Lord Rhys, and Owain of Gwynedd were closed to negotiations. Henry II had to attack Wales 3 times, in 1157, 1158 and 1163 to have them answering his summons to the court. But the terms were too harsh and the Welsh largely revolted against him, he then undertook a 4th invasion in 1164 but this time with a massive army, the Chronicle of the Prince described it that way:

...a mighty host of the picked warriors of England and Normandy and Flanders and Anjou and Gascony and Scotland... and his purpose was ...to carry into bondage and to destroy all the Britons.

.

Bad weather, rains and floods slowed the Angevin army and prevented the capture of Wales; furious Henry II had Welsh hostages mutilated. Wales would remain safe for a while, but the invasion of Ireland in 1171 pressured Henry II to end the issue through negotiations with Lord Rhys. This was due to the fact Cambro-Normans (among others) were taking over Ireland and to control them in Ireland Henry II had to control them in Wales. This time the Welsh accepted the terms and peace lasted until 1183, among the biggest consequences of the settlement of the Welsh issue was the access to Welsh archers which became one of the strongest force of the Plantagenets and later England.

[edit] Ireland

See also: Norman Ireland

Further plans of expansion were considered as Henry II's last brother didn't have a fiefdom yet and Henry II didn't want to give him any of his lands. Ireland was a tempting and easy target, the land was totally fragmented with small kingdoms and from a moral point of view it was easy defend the idea of a conquest. The Holy See was most likely to support a campaign in Ireland which would bring its church into the Christian Latin world of Rome. Henry II was given Rome's blessing in 1155 under the form of a Papal bull but had to postpone the invasion of Ireland because of all the issues in his domains and around them. William of Poitou died in 1164 without being installed in Ireland, but Henry II didn't gave up on the conquest of Ireland. In 1167 -Dermot of Leinster- an Irish King, was recognised as "prince of Leinster" by Henry II and was allowed to recruit soldiers in England and Wales to use in Ireland against the other Kings. The knights first met great success in carving themselves lands in Ireland, so much it worried Henry II enough to land himself in Ireland in October 1171 near Waterford and confronted to such demonstration of power most native kings of Ireland recognised him as their lord. Even Rory O' Connor, the king of Connacht who claimed to be High King of Ireland paid homage to Henry II. Henry II installed some of his men in strongholds like Dublin and Leinster (as Dermot was dead). He also gave unconquered kingdoms such as Cork, Limerick and Ulster to his men and left the Normans carving their lands in Ireland. The island was then experiencing a cultural transformation much like England did before, the island had remained unconquered then fell to Angevin hands. In 1177 he made John, his son, the first Lord of Ireland, although John was too young and landed in Ireland only in 1185. He failed to install his authority on the land and had to return to Henry II. Only 25 years later John would return to Ireland while others built castles and installed their interests. The Hiberno-Normans, or the Normans that settled in Ireland, were called the "Gaill" by the Irish while the English were called the "Sassenach".

[edit] Toulouse

Much less moraly defendable was the claim over Toulouse, Eleanor's ancestors claimed the huge County of Toulouse as it used to be the central power of the ancient Duchy of Aquitaine back in the times of Eudes the Great. Henry II and maybe even Eleanor were probably totally unrelated to this ancient line of Duke (Eleanor was a Ramnulfid while Henry II was an Angevin). Toulouse was a very large city; it was heavily fortified and much richer than many cities of its time. It was of strategical importance as it is between the Atlantic Ocean and the Mediterranean Sea. As if it wasn't enough the County of Toulouse was the largest state of the Kingdom of France with its large access to the Mediterranean Sea itself, and included significant cities like Narbonne, Cahors, Albi, Nimes and Carcassonne.

Toulouse wasn't an easy prey though, the city was incredibly large and fortified for a medieval city<ref>In 721 the Muslim army that crossed the Pyrenees was entirely destroyed in a disastrous siege. It was due, for a part, to the massive fortifications of the city.</ref>. Not to mention the least, Raymond V was married to Louis VII's sister therefore attacking Toulouse would have endangered the policy of peace with the King of France. The County of Toulouse (often called Languedoc) itself was huge, with many heavily fortified areas like Carcassonne and its five sons: Queribus, Aguila, Termes, Peyreperteuse and Puylaurens and many more castles and fortified cities.<ref>These castles are called the "Cathars Castles", yet they weren't built by the cathars themselves. They were built to defend the area against southern invaders like the Caliphate or the Spanish Kingdoms.</ref>

In June 1159 Henry II gathered in Poitiers what probably was the biggest army he had ever set, formed by troops from all of his fiefdom (from Gascony to England), that army also included reinforcements sent by Thierry and Malcolm IV. Henry II attacked from the north while other of his allies, namely the Trencavels and Ramon Berenguer opened a different front. Henry II couldn't capture Toulouse proper what was called the forty years' war with Toulouse by William of Newburgh had begun. Henry II captured Cahors though as well as various castles in the Garonne valley (in the Quercy region), he came back in 1161 and then too busy with conflicts elsewhere in his fiefdom he left his allies fighting against Toulouse. Alfonso II the King of Aragon himself having interests there joined the war. In 1171 Henry II set an alliance with Humbert of Maurienne adding one more enemy of Raymond V to his alliance. In 1173, in Limoges, Raymond finally gave up after over a decade of constant fights. He paid homage to Henry II, to his son also called Henry and to his other son Richard the Lionheart appointed new Duke of Aquitaine. <ref>John Gillingham: "The Angevin Empire" pages 29 and 30, second edition, Arnold Editions</ref>

[edit] The highest moments of power (1160 - 1199)

The attacks on Toulouse made clear that peace with Henry II wasn't peace at all but just the opportunity to make war elsewhere. While Henry II was known for his audacity and aggressive behavior Louis VII was noticed by his subjects for of his love of peace. Louis VII himself was in an awkward position, his subject was more powerful than him and not just a little and worse of all he had no male heir. Constance, his second wife, died in childbirth in 1160 and Louis VII announced he would remarry at once, in the urgent need of a male heir, with Adèle of Champagne. The young Henry was finally married to Margaret aged only 2, under the pressure of Henry II, and as declared in 1158 the Norman Vexin went to him as the dowry. Had Louis VII died without male heir, Henry the Young would have been in a comfortable position to become the next King of France himself.

In 1165, the idea of a possible succession of Henry the Young to the throne of France was all gone as Philip was given birth by Adèle. With the birth of the next King of France it was obvious peace was over, Henry II claimed Auvergne in and marched on it in 1167 while he also claimed Bourges and attacked it in 1170. Louis VII answered by raiding the Norman Vexin forcing Henry II to relocate his troops to the north and Louis VII then marched south and freed Bourges. At that point, not just Louis VII was wondering if Henry II's expansionism would ever end.

Henry II though lacked a lot the sense of state, and never treated his land as a coherent sovereign but much more as private possessions he planned to distribute his children. Henry the young was crowned King of England in 1170 but never actually ruled, in 1172 Richard the Lionheart became Duke of Aquitaine, in 1181 Geoffrey became Duke of Brittany, John became Lord of Ireland in 1185 while Leonora (born in 1161) was promised to Alfonso VII with Gascony as dowry during the campaign against Toulouse in 1170. This partition of the lands between his children made it much harder for him to control them, as several of them would then turn against him.

Following his coronation Henry the Young King asked part of his inheritance, at least England or Normandy or Anjou and Henry II the Old King refused to hand down anything. Henry the Young then joined Louis VII at his court, Eleanor of Aquitaine herself joined the conflict and both Richard the Lionheart and Geoffrey of Brittany joined their brother at the court of the King. From then, states that Henry II had pressured joined the conflict against him. Another King to join Louis VII was William the Lion, King of Scotland, who was captured and forced to sign the Treaty of Falaise. Philip, the Count of Flanders also joined the conflict, as well as the Count of Boulogne and Theobald the Count of Blois. Henry II emerged victorious of that conflict, because of his wealth he could recruit very large amount of mercenaries, he had captured and imprisoned Eleanor as well as captured William the Lion and forced him into a severe treaty. Henry II bought the County of Marche, then he asserted the French Vexin and Bourges should be given at once, but this time there was no invasion to back the claim.

[edit] Philip II Augustus and Richard I the Lionheart

Louis VII died and was buried in the Saint Denis Basilica in 1180. His son, aged only 15, accessed the throne of France and in 1183 he had already decided his policy would be to annihilate Henry II. Philip II of France's policy was to use Henry II's sons against him. Richard the Lionheart was administrating Aquitaine since 1175 but his policy of centralisation of the Aquitanian government has grown unpopular in the eastern part of the Duchy, notably Perigord and Limousin. Richard the Lionheart was accused of many crimes there like murders and rapes.<ref>Roger of Hoveden, Gesta Henrici II Benedicti Abbatis, vol. 1, p. 292... such information can be found in many other sources though.</ref>

In 1183, Henry the Young joined a revolt led by Limoges and Geoffrey of Lusignan against Richard in order to take Richard's place. They were joined by Philip II, Raymond V and by Hugh III the Duke of Burgundy. These were among the most powerful men of France and Richard the Lionheart was close to the disaster. Henry the Young died suddenly of a fatal illness in 1183, saving Richard's position. Henry the Young King was buried in Notre Dame de Rouen.

Richard was then Henry II's oldest son and inherited of Henry the Young's status. Henry II ordered him to hand down Aquitaine to John Lackland but Richard refused to comply. Henry II had too much to cope with at the time to take care of this, Welsh princes were now contesting his authority, William the Lion was asking for his castles to be given back and as Henry the Young was dead Philip II asked for the Norman Vexin to be given back. Henry II finally asked Richard I to surrender Aquitaine to Eleanor while Richard retained the control. Still in 1183, Raymond V had taken Cahors back and Henry II asked Richard to mount an expedition against Toulouse. Geoffrey of Brittany was quarreling violently with his brother Richard and it was obvious Geoffrey could be used by the Capetians but his sudden death in 1186 in a tournament killed the plot. The legend says Philip II was deeply affected by this death and wanted to jump in the coffin with Geoffrey at the burial. In 1187, Philip II and Richard were more that strong allies, there were even allegations their friendship went to a sentimental relationship. The same year Saladin had captured Jerusalem by defeating both Guy de Lusignan and Raymond III of Tripoli. The Pope Gregory VIII then called for the Third Crusade. In 1188 Raymond V attacked again joined by the Lusignans, it was rumored that Henry II himself financed the revolts. By this time Philip II attacked Henry II in Normandy and captured strongholds in Berry. In 1188, Philip II and Henry II met to discuss peace again, Henry II refused to make Richard his heir, the story affirms Richard said: "Now at last, I must believe what I had always thought impossible".

This was the final collapse of all Henry's strategy, first Richard payed homage to the King of France for all the lands his father held. As Richard and Philip II attacked Henry II no one in Aquitaine stood for him, the Bretons which he oppressed for so many years seized the opportunity to attack him too. Even Henry's birthplace, Le Mans, was captured and Tours also soon fell. He was simply encircled in his castle of Chinon. Henry was finally compelled to surrender, he handed down a large tribute in money to Philip II and swore all his subjects in France and England would recognise Richard as their lord. John himself had joined Richard and Philip II to make Henry II's fall in disgrace complete. Henry died, humiliated, two days later. Richard was then King of England as Richard I and Henry II was buried in Fontevraud Abbey.

Eleanor, which was Henry's hostage, was then freed while Lord Rhys raised and began to reconquer the southern parts of Wales that Henry had annexed. Richard I was crowned King in Westminster Abbey in November 1189, while he was already installed Duke of Normandy, Count of Anjou and Duke of Aquitaine even before his father abdicate. Philip II asked for the Norman Vexin to be given back but the issue was settled when Richard I announced he would marry Alys, Philip II's sister. Richard I also recognised Auvergne was meant to belong to the crown of France and not to the Duke of Aquitaine ending Henry's claim on the place.

[edit] The Third Crusade

See also: Third Crusade

The next priority was the crusade, it had been delayed way enough and Richard I considered it was time to do his religious duty. Beyond purely religious matter, his ancestor Fulk V had been King of Jerusalem. Guy de Lusignan was a Poitevin noble while his wife -Sybilla- was no less than Richard's cousin. The Roman Catholic world was shocked by the Siege of Acre in which Saladin was besieging a Christian army, itself besieging Acre.

Before leaving, Richard I had to make sure nothing went wrong while he was in the Holy Land. There was little doubt Raymond V would catch the opportunity to expand his lands in Aquitaine, to counter that threat he built an alliance with Sancho VI the Wise the King of Navarre. On the way to the Holy Land, Richard I married Berengaria the princess of Navarre therefore repudiating Alys in 1191. This was an insult beyond name to Philip II but both Kings were already too much engaged in the crusade to go back and settle that.

The administration left behind left worked rather well in Normandy, Anjou, Aquitaine and Gascony. But in England Geoffrey the Archbishop of York and Henry II's illegitimate son successfully maneuvered against William Longchamp, the Lord Chancellor appointed justiciar. William was then replaced by Walter de Coutances as justiciar, much for John Lackland's displeasure Walter was also loyal to Richard I. The Siege of Acre was merely over that struck by dysentery Philip II of France had to take the way back to his Kingdom, still upset at the way his sister Alys had been treated. Richard I had also upset Leopold V the Virtuous by removing his banner from Acre.

Much has been said about the reasons Philip II went back to France, it is often considered his dysentery was the principal reason. Other causes could have been the way his sister had been treated by Richard I or that he couldn't stand his subject showed more power and wealth than him or even that following the Count of Flanders's death - Philip- he came back to ask his share of the cake in the land of Artois. In Normandy the regent for Richard I -William FitzRalph- rejected Philip II's demands without further debate.

A revolt in Gascony was suppressed by the seneschal, Elias de la Celle and and attack from the Count of Toulouse was repelled with the help of Sancho VI.

[edit] Richard I captive of the Holy Roman Emperor

Richard I left Palestine in October 1192 and would have retrieved his lands intact had he reached home in time. But Leopold V arrested him near Vienna, accusing him of the murder of his cousin Conrad, and then handed him down to Emperor Henry VI. John Lackland was summoned to Philip II's court and accepted to marry Alys with no less than Artois has a dowry in return of what all of the Norman Vexin would be given to the King of France. Afterall, no one was sure if Richard I would be ever released. Yet, all of the forces John could gather were a bunch of mercenaries as even William the Lion didn't join his revolt and worse, sent money for Richard's ransom. Another revolt in Aquitaine was suppressed by Elias de la Celle, but in Normandy Philip II himself was leading the operations. By April 1193 he had reached Rouen and although the Ducal Capital couldn't be taken, he and his allies were then controlling all the ports from the Rhine to Dieppe. Confronted to the disaster Richard's regents conceded the Treaty of Mantes in July 1193, confirming Philip II's control on all the land he had taken including all of the Norman Vexin, the castles of Drincourt and Arques in Normandy as well as the castles of Loches and Châtillon in Tourraine as well as adding a substantial payment once Richard is back.

In a new treaty in 1194, concessions to the King of France went much further when Tours with all the castles of Tourraine and all of Eastern Normandy exepted for Rouen were surrendered. The County of Angoulême was declared independent of Aquitaine, Vendôme was given to Louis of Blois and Rotrou III of Perche acquired Moulins and Bonmoulins. Emperor Henry VI finally released Richard I in 1194 in exchange of the ransom.

[edit] Richard freed, recovering his lands, and finally dying

Richard I was in a difficult position, Philip II had taken over large parts of his lands and had inherited of Amiens and Artois. Considering the ransom payed, Philip II Augustus was now the richer of the two kings. England was Richard's most secured possessions, Hubert Walter who went to the crusade with Richard I was appointed his justiciar. Richard took over John's lordship over Ireland and rejected William the Lion's claim over the northern territories.

Image:ChatoGaillardPano1.jpg Richard I had merely crossed the English Channel to claim back his territories that John Lackland betrayed Philip II by murdering the garrison of Evreux and handing the town down to Richard I. "He had first betrayed his father, then his brother and now our King" said William the Breton. Sancho the Strong, the future King of Navarre, joined the conflict and attacked Aquitaine, capturing Angoulème and Tours. Richard himself was known to be a great military commander<ref>John France, "Western Warfare in the Age of the Crusades 1000-1300" London 1999.</ref>. The first part of this war was difficult for Richard who suffered several setbacks, indeed Philip II was also a great commander and politician. But by October the new Count of Toulouse -Raymond VI- left the Capetian side and joined Richard's. He was followed by Balwin IV of Flanders, the future Latin Emperor, as this one was contesting Artois to Philip II. In 1197, Henry VI died and was replaced by Otton IV, Richard I's own nephew. As if it wasn't enough Renaud de Dammartin who was the Count of Boulogne and a skilled commander also deserted Philip II. Balwin IV was invading Artois and captured Saint Omer while Richard I was campaigning in Berry and inflicted a severe defeat to Philip II at Gisors, close to Paris. A truce was accepted, Richard I had almost recovered all of Normandy and now held more territories in Aquitaine than he had before. Richard I had to deal with a revolt once again, but this time from Limousin. He was struck by a bolt in April 1199 at Châlus-Chabrol and died of a subsequent infection. His brain was buried at Charroux while his heart was buried at Rouen, his body was buried at Fontevraud like his father.

[edit] John's reign, the collapse (1199 - 1217).

John wasn't king yet that the Angevin domains were contested. Following the news of Richard's death, Philip II rushed and captured Evreux. After all John was seen as a perfidious traitor so there was no reason to respect him. John tried to take the Angevin treasure and the castle of Chinon to install his power as Count, Lord, Duke and King. But the Angevin customs didn't see it that way. In the local custom<ref>In the Kingdom of France each feudal states had its own laws, called customs, which often prevailed.</ref> the son of an older brother was preferred to a claimant. Henceforth they recognised Arthur as their ruler, son of Geoffrey of Brittany, depriving John of the Angevins' ancestral land. Only in Normandy and England he could install his rule. In Normandy he was made Duke in Rouen in April 1199 and he was crowned King of England in May at Westminster Abbey. As for Aquitaine he left his mother, Eleanor, controlling the place.

His allies, Aimeri of Thouars and three Lusignan nobles led an attack on Tours in an attempt to capture Arthur and install John as count. Aimeri of Thouars was promised the title of seneschal had he captured Arthur. By this time John went to Normandy to negocy a truce with Philip II. He took profit of this truce to gather Richard's former allies, especially the Count of Boulogne, the Count of Flanders and the Holy Roman Emperor. In the end, no less that 15 French counts swore allegiance to John which was now definitely in a way much stronger position than Philip II. A strong supporter of the King -William des Roches- even switched side in front of so much power and handed down Arthur, whom he was supposed to protect, to John. Arthur managed to espace and join Philip II's court very soon though. It was also the moment the Count of Flanders and a lot of knights decided to join the crusade in 1199 and deserted John's court. John was suddenly in a weaker position and had to accept the Treaty of Le Goulet in 1200. Philip II was confirmed over the lands he had taken in Normandy joined by further concessions in Auvergne and Berry. John was recognised at the head of Anjou in return of what he swore he wouldn't interfere if Baldwin IV or Otto IV attacked Philip II.

[edit] The Lusignans' case and decisive defeats

Image:Les Très Riches Heures du duc de Berry mars.jpg Hugh IX of Lusignan took Eleanor in hostage, John then recognised him as Count of Marche therefore expanding Lusignan power in Aquitaine. In August 1200 John had his first marriage annulled and married Isabella. It can be considered to be a major mistake because she was already promised to Hugh X. John then confiscated La Marche to Hugh X. The Lusignans themselves called for Philip II's intervention on their side, Philip II used his power of suzerainty to confiscate all the lands John held in France and accepted Arthur's homage for Poitou, Anjou, Maine and Tours in 1202. Raymond VI, the Count of Toulouse joined Philip II as well as Renaud de Dammartin while most of John's allies were either in the Holy Land or had left him. Only Sancho VII the Strong was remaining and he was more in need of help than in the situation to supply any.

Arthur launched an attack in Poitou with his Lusignan allies, while Philip II attacked Normandy and captured many castles on the frontier. John was in Le Mans when the attacks were launched and decided to move southward. He captured no less than Arthur and Hugh X with 200 knights while Richard had been proud of capturing 100 knights at Gisors. This dramatic military success was qickly followed by the capture of the Viscount of Limoges and his imprisonment in Chinon. 1202 was a triumph for John who had defeated many of his ennemies like never Richard I nor Henry II did.

John had a major sin, "he could not resist the temptation to kick a man when he was down"<ref>"King John", W.L. Warren (London, 1961).</ref>. He took pleasure in humiliating the knights he had captured. Being considered there wasn't a single noble on his side who didn't have a relative in the other side it wasn't exactly a good idea to act like a thug. Arthur was murdered in jail, most certainly at John's request. This had upset a lot of people because it is not decent to kill a relative. It's possible to jail them forever and treat them very bad but not to kill them<ref>Robert Curthose lamented in jail until his death, blinded by his own brother Henry I.</ref>.

John's allies handed down Alençon in Normandy, while many of them were now fighting him. Vaudreuil was handed down to Philip II without a fight and while John was trying to take Alençon back he had to withdraw when Philip II arrived. Château-Gaillard itself had fallen in 1204 after a 6 months siege, this was a very symbolic loss for the Angevins. Philip II kept campaigning in Normandy and captured Argentan, Falaise, Caen, Bayeux and Lisieux in merely 3 weeks while by the meantime a force of Breton knights captured the Mont Saint-Michel and Avranches. Tours fell in 1204, Loches and even Chinon followed in 1205, only Rouen and Arques were still resisting and Rouen opened its gates to the King. The Ducal castle was destroyed and a bigger one was commissioned.

Eleanor died in 1204 and then most of the Poitevin nobles joined Philip II as they were loyal to Eleanor but not to John. Eleanor's death saw then Alfonso VIII at last asking for Gascony, which was part of the dowry Henry II had given his daughter, and he entered Gascony. Gascony was one of the only French part of the once powerful "Angevin Empire" that remained loyal to the Angevins as it resisted Alfonso and remained in John's hands.

Finally the two Kings agreed on a truce in 1206. The once mighty "Angevin Empire" was now laid to waste with only Gascony and England remaining under firm control. The truce would end in 1214.

[edit] Campaigns in the British Isles and return to France

Following the disasters that happened on the continent, John had to make his rule on the isles undisputed as he had lost of his credibility. He campaigned in South Wales in 1208, the Scottish border in 1209, Ireland in 1210 and North Wales in 1211 and these campaigns often met their successes. John used all resources he could munster to finance an upcoming campaign in France. Taxation of the Jews generated additional incomes while all land property of the church were seized, this had led to John's excommunication. On the mainland, Philip II had installed a completely opposite policy as Jews were now allowed to lend money with interests; lending money and asking for interests was a sin of greed punishable by excommunication, but Jews couldn't be excommunicated yet they were often unallowed to do so in most of Europe.

In 1212, John was ready to land and invade France, but a revolt in Wales forced him to delay his plans and then a baronnal revolt in England made it worse. Philip II was then also preparation an invasion of England, his fleet was destroyed while anchored at Damme by the Earl of Salisbury -William de Longespee-. Hearing of the news, John ordered all the forces he had set to defend England to sail for Poitou. He landed in La Rochelle in 1214 and had then built an alliance with Renaud de Dammartin, Ferdinand the new Count of Flanders and of course Otto IV. His allies would attack in the northeast of France while he would attack from the southwest. John went to Gascony and tried to install his garrison in Agens but it was expelled while Poitou was very different at that point than it was. Unlike Normandy, Philip II had never invaded Poitou, it just switched allegiance and Philip II made its nobles more powerful and more precisely the Lusignans. Philip II had only visited Poitiers since and had installed a very loose rule, but it wasn't because he didn't care. It was more a policy of purchasing Poitevin nobles, therefore creating a buffer and also because his priority was Normandy. In order to invade Paris it was much shorter to go through there from England than the Southwest. The sword swinged two ways as for Philip II it was easier to launch and invasion of England from Normandy. Indeed invading England would have settled all of his problems with Angevins once and for all as they had already lost Anjou and Normandy.

John promised his daughter Joan to Hugh X who was Hugh IX of Lusignan's son, in return of what the Lusignans would be granted Saintonge and the Island of Oleron as well as possibilities of further concessions in Touraine and Anjou. That was a huge concession to the Lusignans, yet John called that "bringing them to submit".

Peter was the Duke of Brittany of the time and the cousin of the King. But his claim to the rule of Brittany was fairly loose, if anything Eleanor of Brittany had a stronger claim as she was the sister of the defunct Arthur. John had her captured and used her as blackmail against Peter with one hand while temptating him by offering Richmond with the other hand, Peter refused to change allegiance in the end and not even after capture of his brother Robert III of Dreux near Nantes made him change his stance.

John entered Angers and captured a newly built castle at Roche-au-Moine but Prince Louis rushed from Chinon with an army and took it back by pushing John back to retreat. Even though this was a setback John had at least made the job of his allies easier by dividing the Capetian army. Then happened the disastrous Battle of Bouvines in which all his allies were not just defeated at the hand of Philip II but also put into very uncomfortable positions afterward:

• Ferdinand was captured and jailed until his death in 1233.
• Otto IV was now an Emperor defeated by a King, he could avoid capture only because of the sacrifice of his Saxons knights and took a disgraceful retreat. His position in Germany collapsed when he was overthrown by Frederick II who was ironically the man Philip II had supported against Richard I's candidate.
• Renaud de Dammartin languished in jail for the rest of his life, until his suicide.
• William de Longespee who was John's personal representant was himself captured and exchanged for Robert III, whose father Robert II had fought in the battle.

John was beaten, the economy of the Kingdom of England was ravaged by taxation and he was then considered a plunderer and a failed one at this. All the money he could gather and all the power he used brought nothing. His allies were all down or captured. The population of England was at its limit and couldn't pay any further war while its barons were furious at John.

[edit] Capetians in England

See also: First Barons' War, Magna Carta

In 1215 English barons were convinced that John would not respect the convention of the charter he had just signed and they sent a letter to the French court in which they offered the crown of England to Prince Louis. By November a Capetian garrison was sent in no less than London to support the rebels and on 22 May 1216 capetians forces had landed at Sandwich led by Prince Louis himself. John fled henceforth allowing Louis to capture London and Winchester. By August most of eastern England was controlled apart Dover, Lincoln and Windsor. King Alexander II of Scotland travelled to Canterbury and paid homage to Prince Louis as King of England for the Northern Territories<ref>There are two interpretations on these events. Some scholars think that John had the strongest force and would have won if he had the courage to stand against Louis, that he was just too scared and preferred his "royal bed" to the battlefield. Other scholars, like David Carpenter in "The Struggle for Mastery, page 299" tend to say that with 1,200 knights the Capetian army had the upper hand no matter. Anyway Louis "entered a cheering London and then seized Winchester" while "Carlisle was surrendered to Alexander who then came south to do homage to Louis for the Northern Counties."</ref>.

The situation for the Angevins was horrible; they had lost their homeland and now they were about to lose the one they had conquered from the Normans. John died 2 months later, abandoned by everyone and being defeated even in England. Fortunately for the Angevins this death was a blessing as even an underaged child like Henry III was a more credible ruler than John at this point. The regency installed the Magna Carta in law, that charter signed by John and was not applied until then. From then Louis support was all gone, he was defeated nearly a year later at Lincoln and Sandwich. Thus ended his claim on England that he conceded in the Treaty of Lambeth in September 1217. There is no condition in that treaty that made Louis to ask his father for returning the mainland possessions to the Angevins unlike what a popular belief says.

[edit] Cultural Influence

The hypothetical continuation and expansion of the Angevin Empire over several centuries has been the subject of several tales of alternate history. Historically both English and French historians had viewed the juxtoposition of England and French lands under Angevin control as something of an aberration and an offence to national identity. To English historians the lands in France were an encumbrance, while French historians considered the union to be an English empire.

This is what Macaulay, in 1849, wrote in his History of England about the union of the two lands<ref>Integral text, please see the section: "separation of England and Normandy".</ref>.

Had the Plantagenets, as at one time seemed likely, succeeded in uniting all France under their government, it is probable that England would never have had an independent existence. Her princes, her lords, her prelates, would have been men differing in race and language from the artisans and the tillers of the earth. The revenues of her great proprietors would have been spent in festivities and diversions on the banks of the Seine. The noble language of Milton and Burke would have remained a rustic dialect, without a literature, a fixed grammar, or a fixed orthography, and would have been contemptuously abandoned to the use of boors. No man of English extraction would have risen to eminence, except by becoming in speech and habits a Frenchman........

The Angevin Empire itself was of critical cultural importance, the Plantagenet kings had adopted wine as main drink, replacing beer and cider used by the Norman kings. The Loire Valley from which they came from was already a producer but it's the Bordeaux region that took the maximum profit from that. The loss of their homelands in France didn't alter that custom and from that the wine produced in that region, which the English would call Claret<ref>Claret, or Clairet, is a specific king of wine while the term is used as synonym of Bordeaux wine in English.</ref>, became popular in England. The ruling class of the Angevin Empire was also French speaking, while the church retained Ecclesiastical Latin. </