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For other uses, see Apache (disambiguation).

Apache is the collective name for several culturally related groups of Native Americans in the United States, aboriginal inhabitants of North America, who speak a Southern Athabaskan (Apachean) language. The modern term excludes the related Navajo people. However, the Navajo and the other Apache groups are clearly related through culture and language and thus are considered Apachean. Apachean peoples formerly ranged over eastern Arizona, north-western Mexico, New Mexico, parts of Texas, and a small group on the plains.

There was little political unity among the Apachean groups. The groups spoke 7 different languages. The current division of Apachean groups includes the Navajo, Western Apache, Chiricahua, Mescalero, Jicarilla, Lipan, and Plains Apache (formerly Kiowa-Apache). Apache groups are now in Oklahoma and Texas and on reservations in Arizona and New Mexico. The Navajo reside on a large reservation in the United States. Some Apacheans have moved to large metropolitan areas, such as New York City.

The Apachean tribes were historically very powerful, constantly at enmity with the whites for centuries. The U.S. Army, in their various confrontations, found them to be fierce warriors and skillful strategists.

Contents 1 Name and synonymy 1.1 Name 1.2 Synonymy 2 History 2.1 Entry into the Southwest 2.2 Conflict with Mexico and the United States 3 Modern Apache groups 4 Culture 4.1 Housing 4.2 Food 4.3 Social organization 4.3.1 Kinship systems 4.4 Religion 4.5 Languages 5 References 6 External links

[edit] Name and synonymy

[edit] Name

The name Apache was borrowed into English via Spanish although the ultimate origin is uncertain. It was first written in Spanish by Juan de Oñate in 1598. The most widely accepted origin asserts a borrowing of Zuni ʔa·paču which means "Navajos", although the Navajo were not distinguished from other Apachean groups (other Zuni words referring to modern Apache groups are wilacʔu·kwe "White Mountain Apache" and čišše·kʷe "San Carlos Apache, Apaches in general"). Another suggested derivation is from Yavapai ʔpačə meaning "people". However, both of the origins are less convincing considering that Oñate encountered Yuman or Zuni peoples only after the word was recorded. Other possible origins may be from Spanish mapache "raccoon" and from an unspecified Quechan word meaning "running warrior horse".

The Spanish first mention the "Apachu de Nabajo" (Navajo) in the 1620s, referring to people in the Chama region east of the San Juan River. By the 1640s, the term was applied to Southern Athabaskan peoples from the Chama on the east to the San Juan on the west.

The tribes' tenacity and fighting skills, probably bolstered by dime novels, had an impact on Europeans. In early twentieth century Parisian society Apache essentially meant an outlaw.

[edit] Synonymy

Many written historical names of Apachean groups recorded by non-Apacheans are difficult to match to modern-day tribes or their sub groups. Additionally, many authors over the centuries did not distinguish between Apachean and other semi-nomadic non-Apachean peoples that might pass through the same area. More commonly a name was aquired because that was what another group called them. Adding to an outsider's confusion, an Apachean individual has different ways to identify themselves, such as their band or their clans, depending upon the context.

The Arivaipa (also Aravaipa) is a band of the San Carlos local group of the Western Apache. Albert Schroeder believes the Arivaipa was a separate section in pre-reservation times. Arivaipa is a borrowing (via Spanish) from the O'odham language. The Arivaipa are known as Tsézhiné "Black Rock" in the Western Apache language.

• Carlanas

Chíshí (also Tchishi) is a Navajo word meaning "Chiricahua, southern Apaches in general". A similar words occur in Jicarilla Chíshín and Lipan Chishį́į́hį́į́ "Forest Lipan".

Chʼúúkʼanén (also Čʼókʼánéń, Čʼó·kʼanén, Chokonni, Cho-kon-nen, Cho Kŭnĕ́, Chokonen) refers to the Eastern Chiricahua band of Morris Opler. The name is an autonym from the Chiricahua language.

Coyotero usually refers to a southern division of the pre-reservation White Mountain local group of the Western Apache. However, the name has also been used more inclusively to refer other Western Apache local groups and to Western Apaches in general.

Faraones (also Paraonez, Pharaones, Taraones, Taracones, Apaches Faraone) is derived from Spanish Faraón "Pharaoh". Before 1700, the name was vague without a specific referent. Between 1720-1726, it referred to Apaches between the Rio Grande in the east, the Pecos River in the west, the area around Santa Fe in the north, and the Conchos River in the south. After 1726, Faraones only referred to the north and central parts of this region. The Faraones probably were, at least in part, part of the modern-day Mescaleros or had merged with the Mescaleros. After 1814, the term Faraones disappeared having been replaced by Mescalero.

The Gileño (also Apaches de Gila, Apaches de Xila, Apaches de la Sierra de Gila, Xileños, Gilenas, Gilans, Gilanians, Gila Apache, Gilleños) was used to refer to several different Apachean and non-Apachean groups at different times. Gila refers to either the Gila River or the Gila Mountains. Some of the Gila Apaches were probably later known as the Mogollon Apaches, a subdivision of the Chiricahua, while others probably evolved into the Chiricahua proper. However, since the term was used indiscrimately for all Apachean groups west of the Rio Grande (i.e. in southeast Arizona and western New Mexico), the referent is often unclear. After 1722, Spanish documents start to distinguish between these different groups, in which case Apaches de Gila refers to Western Apaches living along the Gila River (and thus synonymous with Coyotero). American writers first used the term to refer to the Mimbres (another subdivision of the Chiricahua), while later the term was confusingly used to refer to Coyoteros, Mogollones, Tontos, Mimbreños, Pinaleños, Chiricahuas, as well as the non-Apachean Yavapai (then also known as Garroteros or Yabipais Gileños). Another Spanish usage (along with Pimas Gileños and Pimas Cileños) referred to the non-Apachean Pima living on the Gila River.

• Lipiyánes

Llanero is a borrowing from Spanish meaning "plains dweller". The name was historically used to refer to a number of different groups that hunted buffalo seasonally on the Plains: Carlanas, Lipans, Lipiyánes, Natagés. The connections between these groups is not completely clear. In present usage, the name refers to one of the two Jicarilla bands.

Mimbreños is an older name that refers to a section of Opler's Eastern Chiricahua band and to Albert Schroeder's Mimbres and Warm Springs Chiricahua bands (Oplers lists three Chircahua bands, while Schroeder lists five).

Mogollon was considered by Schroeder a separate pre-reservation Chiricahua band while Opler considered the Mogollon to be part of his Eastern Chiricahua band.

Náʼįįsha (also Náʼęsha, Na´isha, Na-i-shan-dina, Na-ishi, Na-e-ca, Nąʼishą́, Nadeicha, Nardichia, Nadíisha-déna, Naʼdíʼį́shą́ʼ, Nądíʼįįshąą, Naisha) is an autonym for the Plains Apache.

• Natagés

• Tchikun.

[edit] History

[edit] Entry into the Southwest

The Apache and Navajo (Diné) tribal groups of the American Southwest speak related languages of the language family referred to as Athabaskan. Southern Athabaskan peoples in North America fan out from west-central Canada where some Southern Athabaskan-speaking groups still reside. Linguistic similarities indicate the Navajo and Apache were once a single ethnic group. Archaeological and historical evidence suggests a recent entry of into the American Southwest, with substantial numbers not present until the early 1500s.

There are two hypotheses concerning Apachean migrations. One posits that they moved into the Southwest from the Great Plains where 16th-century Spanish accounts identified them as “dog nomads.” These mobile groups lived in tents, hunted bison and other game, and used dogs to pull travois loaded with their possessions. In April 1541, while traveling on the plains east of the Pueblo region, Francisco Coronado wrote:

After seventeen days of travel, I came upon a rancheria of the Indians who follow these cattle (bison). These natives are called Querechos. They do not cultivate the land, but eat raw meat and drink the blood of the cattle they kill. They dress in the skins of the cattle, with which all the people in this land clothe themselves, and they have very well-constructed tents, made with tanned and greased cowhides, in which they live and which they take along as they follow the cattle. They have dogs which they load to carry their tents, poles, and belongings. (See Hammond and Rey.)

The Spaniards described Plains dogs as very white, with black spots, and “not much larger than water spaniels.” Plains dogs were slightly smaller than those used for hauling loads by modern northern Canadian peoples. Recent experiments show these dogs may have pulled loads up to 50 lb (20 kg) on long trips, at rates as high as two or three miles an hour (3 to 5 km/h). (See Henderson.) This Plains migration theory associates Apachean peoples with the Dismal River aspect, an archaeological culture known primarily from ceramics and house remains, dated 1675-1725 excavated in Nebraska, eastern Colorado, and western Kansas. The other competing theory posits a migration through the mountains ultimately reaching the Southwest. Only the Plains Apache have any significant Plains cultural influence while all tribes have distinct Athabaskan characteristics. The descriptions of peoples such as the Mountain Querechos and the Apache Vaqueros are vague and could apply to many other Plains tribes and the specific traits of these groups do not seem particularly Apachean. Additionally, Harry Hoijer's classification of Plains Apache as an Apachean language has been disputed.

Although there is some evidence Southern Athabaskan peoples may have visited the Southwest as early as the 13th century AD, most scientists believe they arrived permanently only a few decades before the Spanish. The Southern Athabaskan nomadic way of life complicates accurate dating, primarily because they constructed less-substantial dwellings than other Southwestern groups. They also left behind a more austere set of tools and material goods. Sites where early Southern Athabaskans may have lived are difficult to locate, and even more difficult to firmly identify as culturally Southern Athabaskan.

Trade between the long established Pueblo peoples and the Southern Athabaskans became important to both groups by the mid-16th century. The Pueblos exchanged maize and woven cotton goods for bison meat, hides and material for stone tools. Coronado observed Plains people wintering near the Pueblos in established camps. In 1540, Coronado reported the modern Western Apache area as uninhabited and other Spaniards first mention "Querechos" living west of the Rio Grande in the 1580s. Therefore it is likely that the Apaches moved into their current southwestern homelands in the late 16th and early 17th centuries. Southern Athabaskans expanded their range through the 17th century, occupying areas the Pueblos peoples had abandoned during prior centuries.

[edit] Conflict with Mexico and the United States

The Apache were a powerful people, anxious to defend their territory and constantly at enmity with the aggressive European population that was confiscating their living area. In the 1820s and 1830s, the Apaches' chief enemy was the Mexicans, who had gained their independence from Spain in 1821. By 1835 Mexico had placed a bounty on Apache scalps. When Juan José Compas, the leader of the Mimbreño Apaches, was killed for bounty money in 1837, Mangas Coloradas or Dasoda-hae (Red Sleeves) became principal chief and war leader and began a series of retaliatory raids against the Mexicans.

When the United States went to war against Mexico, the Apache promised U.S. soldiers safe passage through Apache lands. When the U.S. claimed former territories of Mexico in 1846, Mangas Coloradas signed a peace treaty, respecting them as conquerors of the hated Mexican enemies. An uneasy peace between the Apache and the United States held until the 1850s, when an influx of gold miners into the Santa Rita Mountains led to conflict. In 1851, near Pinos Altos mining camp, Mangas was personally attacked by a group of miners who tied him to a tree and severely beat him. Similar incidents continued in violation of the treaty, leading to Apache reprisals. In December, 1860, thirty miners launched a surprise attack on an encampment of Bedonkohes Apaches on the west bank of the Mimbres River. According to historian Edwin R. Sweeney, the miners "...killed four Indians, wounded others, and captured thirteen women and children." Retaliation by the Apache again followed, with raids against U.S. citizens and property. The U.S. Army, in their various confrontations, found them to be fierce warriors and skillful strategists.

In early February 1861, Lieutenant George N. Bascom and U.S. troopers lured Cochise, principal chief of the Chokonen Apache, his family and several warriors into a trap at Apache Pass, in southeastern Arizona. Cochise managed to escape but his family and warriors remained in captivity. Negotiations were unsuccessful and fighting erupted. The "Bascom Affair" ended with Cochise’s brother and five other warriors being hanged from trees. Later in 1861, Mangas Coloradas and Cochise, his son-in-law, struck an alliance, agreeing to drive all Anglo-Americans out of Apache territory. They were joined in their effort by the chief Juh and the famous warrior Geronimo. Although the goal was never achieved, the Anglo-American population was greatly reduced for a few years during the American Civil War.

In the summer of 1862, after recovering from a bullet wound in the chest, Mangas Coloradas met with an intermediary to call for peace with the Americans. In January of 1863, he decided to personally meet with U.S. military leaders at Fort McLane, near present-day Hurley in southwestern New Mexico. Mangas arrived under a white flag of truce to meet with Brigadier General Joseph Rodman West, an officer of the California militia and a future senator from Louisiana. Armed soldiers took him into custody and West is reported to have given an execution order to the sentries. That night Mangas was tortured, shot and killed, as he was "trying to escape." The following day, U.S. soldiers cut off his head, boiled it and sent the skull to the Smithsonian Institution. The mutilation of Mangas' body only increased the hostility between the Apaches and the United States, with war continuing for almost another quarter century. The ongoing war impacted other Native American tribes, as well, as the Apache were significantly involved in trading networks.

The final surrender of the tribe took place in 1886, when the Chiricahuas, the division involved, were deported to Florida and Alabama, where they underwent military imprisonment.

[edit] Modern Apache groups

The major modern Apache groups include the Jicarilla and Mescalero of New Mexico, the Chiricahua of the Arizona-New Mexico border area, the Western Apache of Arizona, the Lipan Apache of southwestern Texas, and the Plains Apache of Oklahoma. There undoubtedly existed other Apache groups which are not as well-known by modern anthropologists and historians.

The Oklahoma Chiricahuas form the Fort Sill Apache Tribe. The New Mexico Chiricahuas are subsumed under the larger Mescalero political group on the Mescalero Indian Reservation.

Western Apachez are the Apache group that remains within Arizona. The group is divided into a number of reservations that cross-cut cultural divisions. Grenville Goodwin divided the Western Apaches into five groups: White Mountain, Cibecue, San Carlos, North Tonto, and South Tonto. Other anthropologists consider with Goodwin's classification inconsisent with pre-reservation cultural divisions. Willem de Reuse (2003, 2005, 2006) finds linguistic evidence supporting three major groupings: White Mountain, San Carlos, and Dilze’eh (Tonto) with San Carlos as the most divergent dialect and Dilze’eh as a remnant intermediate member of a dialect continuum previously existing between the Western Apache language and Navajo. The Western Apache reservations include the Fort Apache White Mountain reservation, the San Carlos reservation, the Yavapai-Apache reservation, the Tonto-Apache reservation, the Fort McDowell Mohave-Apache reservation. There are also Apaches on the Yavapai-Prescott reservation and off-reservation in Arizona and throughout the United States. The White Mountain Apache Tribe is located in the east central region of Arizona, 194 miles northeast of Phoenix. The Tonto Apache Reservation was created in 1972 near Payson in eastern Arizona. Within the Tonto National Forest northeast of Phoenix it consists of 85 acres (344,000 m²) and serves about 100 tribal members. The tribe operates a casino. The Yavapai-Apache Nation Reservation southwest of Flagstaff, Arizona is shared with the Yavapai. There is a visitor center in Camp Verde, Arizona and at the end of February an Exodus Days celebration with a historic re-enactment and a pow wow.

Apache children were taken for adoption by white Americans in programs similar in nature to those involving the Stolen Generation of Australia.

[edit] Culture

[edit] Housing

All people in the Apache tribe lived in one of three types of houses. the first of which is the tipi, for those who lived in the plains. Another type of housing is the wickiup, an eight foot tallframe of wood held together with yucca fibers and covered in brush usually in the apache groups in the highlands. The final housing is the hogan, an earthen structure in the desert area that was good for keeping cool in the hot weather of northern Mexico.

[edit] Food

[edit] Social organization

All Apachean peoples lived in extended family units (or family clusters) that usually lived close together with each nuclear family in separate dwellings. An extended family generally consisted of a husband and wife, their unmarried children, their married daughters, their married daughters' husbands, and their married daughters' children. Thus, the extended family is connected through a lineage of women that live together (that is, matrilocal residence), into which men may enter upon marriage (leaving behind his parents' family). When a daughter was married, a new dwelling was built nearby for her and her husband. Among the Navajo, residence rights are ultimately derived from a head mother. Although the Western Apache usually practiced matrilocal residence, sometimes the eldest son chose to bring his wife to live with his parents after marriage.

All Apachean men practiced varying degrees of avoidance of his wife's close relatives — often strictest between mother-in-law and son-in-law. The degree of avoidance differed in different Apachean groups. The most elaborate system was among the Chiricahua where men must use indirect polite speech toward and were not allowed to be within visual sight of his relatives that he was in an avoidance relationship with. His female Chiricahua relatives also did likewise to him.

Several extended families worked together as a local group, which carried out certain ceremonies, and economic and military activies. Political control was mostly present at the local group level. Local groups were headed by a chief, a male who had considerable influence over others in the group due to his effectiveness and reputation. The chief was the closest societal role to a leader in Apachean cultures. The office was not hereditary and often filled by members of different extended families. The chief's leadership was only as strong as he was evaluated to be — no group member was ever obliged to follow the chief. Many Apachean peoples joined together several local groups into bands. Band organization was strongest among the Chiricahua and Western Apache, while in the Lipan and Mescalero it was weak. The Navajo did not organize local groups into bands perhaps because of the requirements of the sheepherding economy. However, the Navajo did have the outfit, a group of relatives that was larger than the extended family, but not as large as a local group community or a band.

On the larger level, the Western Apache organized bands into what Grenville Goodwin called groups. He reported five groups for the Western Apache: Northern Tonto, Southern Tonto, Cibecue, San Carlos, and White Mountain. The Jicarilla grouped their bands into moieties perhaps due to influence from northeastern Pueblos. Additionally the Western Apache and Navajo had a system of matrilineal clans that were organized further into phratries (perhaps due to influence from western Pueblos). The notion of tribe in Apachean cultures is very weakly developed essentially being only a recognition of similar speech and culture. In fact, not all Apaches recognize the existence of tribes within their cultures. The seven Apachean tribes had no political unity and often were enemies of each other — for example, the Lipan fought against the Mescalero just as with the Comanche.

[edit] Kinship systems

[edit] Religion

Apachean religious stories relate two culture heros (one of the sun/fire, Killer-Of-Enemies/Monster Slayer, and one of water/moon/thunder, Child-Of-The-Water/Born For Water) that destroy a number of creatures that are harmful to humankind. Another story is of a hidden ball game where good and evil animals decide whether or not the world should be forever dark. Coyote, the trickster, is an important being that usually has inappropriate behavior (such as marrying his own daughter, etc.). The Navajo, Western Apache, Jicarilla, and Lipan have an emergence story while this is lacking in the Chiricahua. The Apaches participate in many spiritual dances including the rain dance, the sunrise dance for young women, a harvest and crop dance, and a spirit dance. These dances were mostly for enriching their food resources.

[edit] Languages

Main article: Southern Athabascan languages

All Apachean peoples speak seven Southern Athabascan languages. The Southern or Apachean branch of this family was defined by Harry Hoijer primarily according to its merger of stem-initial consonants of the Proto-Athabascan series *k̯ and *c into *c (in addition to the widespread merger of *č and *čʷ into *č also found in many Northern Athabascan languages). Hoijer (1938) divided the Apachean sub-family into an Eastern branch consisting of Jicarilla, Lipan, and Plains Apache and a Western branch consisting of Navajo, Western Apache (San Carlos), Chiricahua, and Mescalero based on the merger of Proto-Apachean *t and *k to k in the Eastern branch. He later revised his proposal in 1971 when he found that Plains Apache did not participate in the *k̯, *c merger to consider Plains Apache as a language equi-distant from the other languages, now called Southwestern Apachean. Morris Opler (1975) has suggested that Hoijer's original formulation that Jicarilla and Lipan in an Eastern branch was more in agreement with the cultural similarities between these two and the differences from the other Western Apachean groups. Other linguists, particularly Michael Krauss (1973), have noted that a classification based only on the initial consonants of noun and verb stems is arbitrary and when other sound correspondences are considered the relationships between the languages appear to be more complex. Additionally, it has been pointed out by Martin Huld (1983) that since Plains Apache does not merge Proto-Athabascan *k̯, *c, Plains Apache cannot be considered an Apachean language as defined by Hoijer.

[edit] References

• Basso, Keith H. (1983). Western Apache. In A. Ortiz (Ed.), Handbook of North American Indians: Southwest (Vol. 10, pp. 462-488). Washingon, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution.
• Brugge, David M. (1983). Navajo prehistory and history to 1850. In A. Ortiz (Ed.), Handbook of North American Indians: Southwest (Vol. 10, pp. 489-501). Washingon, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution.
• Etulain, Richard W. New Mexican Lives: A Biographical History. University of New Mexico Center for the American West, University of New Mexico Press, 2002. ISBN 0-8263-2433-9
• Foster, Morris W; & McCollough, Martha. (2001). Plains Apache. In R. J. DeMallie (Ed.), Handbook of North American Indians: Plains (Vol. 13, pp. 926-939). Washingon, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution.
• Gunnerson, James H. (1979). Southern Athapaskan archeology. In A. Ortiz (Ed.), Handbook of North American Indians: Southwest (Vol. 9, pp. 162-169). Washingon, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution.
• Haley, James L. Apaches: A History and Culture Portrait. University of Oklahoma Press, 1997. ISBN 0-8061-2978-6.
• Hammond, George P. and Rey, Agapito (editors). Narratives of the Coronado Expedition 1540-1542. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1940.
• Henderson, Richard. “Replicating Dog Travois Travel on the Northern Plains.” Plains Anthropologist, V39:145-59, 1994.
• Hodge, F. W., editor. Handbook of American Indians, Washington, 1907.
• Hoijer, Harry. (1938). The southern Athapaskan languages. American Anthropologist, 40 (1), 75-87.
• Hoijer, Harry. (1971). The position of the Apachean languages in the Athapaskan stock. In K. H. Basso & M. E. Opler (Eds.), Apachean culture history and ethnology (pp. 3-6). Anthropological papers of the University of Arizona (No. 21). Tucson: University of Arizona Press.
• Huld, Martin E. (1983). Athapaskan bears. International Journal of American Linguistics, 49 (2), 186-195.
• Krauss, Michael E. (1973). Na-Dene. In T. A. Sebeok (Ed.), Linguistics in North America (pp. 903-978). Current trends in linguistics (Vol. 10). The Hague: Mouton. (Reprinted 1976).
• Opler, Morris E. (1975). Problems in Apachean cultural history, with special reference to the Lipan Apache. Anthropological Quarterly, 48 (3), 182-192.
• Opler, Morris E. (1983). The Apachean culture pattern and its origins. In A. Ortiz (Ed.), Handbook of North American Indians: Southwest (Vol. 10, pp. 368-392). Washingon, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution.
• Opler, Morris E. (1983). Chiricahua Apache. In A. Ortiz (Ed.), Handbook of North American Indians: Southwest (Vol. 10, pp. 401-418). Washingon, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution.
• Opler, Morris E. (1983). Mescalero Apache. In A. Ortiz (Ed.), Handbook of North American Indians: Southwest (Vol. 10, pp. 419-439). Washingon, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution.
• Opler, Morris E. (2001). Lipan Apache. In R. J. DeMallie (Ed.), Handbook of North American Indians: Plains (Vol. 13, pp. 941-952). Washingon, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution.
• Plog, Stephen. Ancient Peoples of the American Southwest. Thames and London, LTD, London, England, 1997. ISBN 0-500-27939-X.
• Sweeney, Edwin R. (1998). Mangas Coloradas: Chief of the Chiricahua Apaches. University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN 0-8061-3063-6
• Tiller, Veronica E. (1983). Jicarilla Apache. In A. Ortiz (Ed.), Handbook of North American Indians: Southwest (Vol. 10, pp. 440-461). Washingon, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution.

[edit] External links

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Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Apaches

• American Indian Language Development Institute (has children's video of Catcus Boy story in Western Apache)
• Apache Times (San Carlos)
• Tonto Apache Tribe (Arizona Intertribal Council)
• Yavapai-Apache Nation (Arizona Intertribal Council)
• White Mountain Apache Tribe (Arizona Intertribal Council)
• San Carlos Apache Tribe (Arizona Intertribal Council)
• official Yavapai-Apache Nation website
• Post-Contact Social Organization of Three Apache Tribes
• about San Carlos Apache
• White Mountain Apache photographs
• photos, facts, opinions on White Mountain Apaches & the Fort Apache Reservation
• Puberty Ceremony of White Mountain Apaches (information & photo)
• US government's plan to exterminate Apaches
• Apache Language Sample
• Bibliography from Kevin Reeve
• Indians of Arizona (from History of Arizona)
• The Apache (from History of Arizona)
• Apache myths & texts
• Grenville Goodwin's preface to Myths and Tales of the White Mountain Apache
• The Handbook of Texas Online: Apache Indians
• Online Etymology Dictionary
• Inde (Apache) Literature
• Countries and Their Cultures: Apachesar:أباتشي (قبيلة)

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