Attachment theory

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Attachment theory is a psychological theory, or group of theories, about the evolved adaptive tendency to maintain proximity to an attachment figure. The origin of attachment theory can be traced to the publication of two 1958 papers, one being John Bowlby's "the Nature of the Child's Tie to his Mother", in which the precursory concepts of "attachment" were introduced, and Harry Harlow's "the Nature of Love", as based on the results of experiments which showed, approximately, that infant rhesus monkeys preferred emotional attachment over food.

1 Overview
2 Basic attachment theory
3 Attachment theory in clinical practice
4 References
5 See also
6 Further reading
7 External links

[edit] Overview

Attachment may be defined as "an affectional tie that one person or animal forms between him/herself and another specific one [usually the parent] — a tie that binds them together in space and endures over time. <ref name="Ainsworth,Bell,Stayton,1974">Ainsworth, Bell, & Stayton (1974) "Infant-mother attachment". In M.P.M. Richards (Ed.) Integratin of a child into a social world.. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.</ref> Attachment theory, from one perspective, has its origins in the observation of and experiments with young animals. In the 1950s, a famous series of experiments on infant monkeys by Harlow and Harlow demonstrated that attachment is not a simple reaction to internal drives such as hunger. <ref name="Harlow,Harlow,1969">Harlow, H. F. & Harlow, M. K. (1969) "Effects of various mother-infant relationships on rhesus monkey behaviors". In B. M. Foss (Ed.) Determinants of infant behavior (Vol. 4). London: Methuen.</ref>

In these experiments, young monkeys were separated from their mother shortly after birth. They were offered two dolls to serve as surrogates to the mother. The first doll had a body of wire mesh. The second doll had a body of terry cloth and foam rubber. The wire mesh doll was secured with a bottle of milk, the softer doll without. The experiment proved that what a baby ultimately seeks is a mother's warmth and the familiar feeling of being with the mother. It established that food was not necessarily a predominant need for the baby, but it sought a mother's warmth more than food. Thus reinforcing the idea of maternal love being the most important aspect in a baby's life.

The experiment was designed to see if the monkeys would cling to the doll providing the soft contact of cloth or to the doll providing the source of food. It turned out that the monkeys would cling to the soft-clothed doll, irrespective of whether it provided food. The monkeys also explored more when the soft-cloth doll was near. Apparently, the doll provided them with a sense of security. However, the passive doll was not an adequate alternative for a real mother. Infant monkeys which were raised without contact with other monkeys showed abnormal behavior in social situations. They were either very fearful of other monkeys or responded with unprovoked aggression when they encountered other monkeys. They also showed abnormal sexual responses. Female monkeys who were raised in isolation often neglected or abused their infants. This abnormal behaviour is thought to demonstrate that a bond with the mother is necessary for further social development. The effects of 6 days of intensive research resurfaced at a more adult stage in the monkey's life, roughly 2 years later. This proved a theory for young babies detached from their mothers or predominant carer, that detachment at an early stage of life can reoccur as a much more serious problem or even mental retardation later in that child's life, again reinforcing the importance of secure attachment to a famliar carer or specifically the mother (according to Bowlby).

Much of the early research on attachment in humans was done by John Bowlby and his associates, such as Mary Ainsworth. Ainsworth, to briefly summarize, conducted an experiment with a mother and child (or closest carer) through the use of two way mirrors. The room had a selection of toys on a table that the child could 'explore'. Using a number of infants, Ainsworth placed the mother and child in this room and recorded how the child reacted. The mother or carer then left the room, and a stranger entered. The reaction of the child was again then recorded. The stranger then left, and the mother returned, thus concluding the experiment. What Ainsworth was aiming to deduce from this experiment was predominantly the child's reaction and placing the child's relationship to the mother in 1 of 3 categories:

Secure Attachment - If the child showed depression through screaming, crying and a general sense of loss through the mother's departure; an unwillingess to play with the provided toys; reluctance to warm to the stranger and an obvious sense of relief at the mother's return, then this would conclude that the child's relationship to the mother was that of a Secure Attachment.

Insecure Attachment - If the child showed some sadness towards the mother's departure; a cautious desire to play with the toys; ability to be picked up by the stranger but not necessarily 'warm' to the stranger and some signs of relief to the mother's return, then this child would be deemed as having an Insecure Attachment to the mother.

Detachment - If the child showed no signs of distress at the mother's departure, a willingness to explore the toys, no reluctance in being handled by the stranger and little to no response to the mother's return, then this child-mother relationship would be diagnosed as Detachment.

All three 'prescriptions' would be diagnosed largely on the mother's relationship to the child. A mother with a Secure Attachment to the child would be responsive and caring towards the child. A mother with an Insecure Attachment to the child would show little response to the child and basic care. A mother who was detached from her child would show little to no warmth for the child and barely partake in the general necessities of child care - thus causing later distress in the child's life. <ref name="Bowlby,1969">Bowlby, J. (1969) Attachment , Vol. 1 of Attachment and loss. London: Hogarth Press. New York: Basic Books; Harmondsworth: Penguin (1971).</ref> <ref name="Bowlby,1973">Bowlby, J. (1973) , Separation: Anxiety & Anger. Vol. 2 of Attachment and loss London: Hogarth Press; New York: Basic Books; Harmondsworth: Penguin (1975).</ref> <ref name="Bowlby,1980">Bowlby, J. (1980) Loss: Sadness & Depression, in Vol. 3 of Attachment and loss, London: Hogarth Press. New York: Basic Books; Harmondsworth: Penguin (1981).</ref> <ref name="Bretherton,1992">Bretherton, I. (1992). The Origins of Attachment Theory: John Bowlby and Mary Ainsworth. Developmental Psychology, 28, 759-775.</ref> These early studies focused on attachment between children and caregivers. Attachment theory was later extended to adult romantic relationships by Cindy Hazen and Phillip Shaver. <ref name="Hazen,Shaver,1987">Hazan, C., & Shaver, P. (1987). Romantic love conceptualized as an attachmenpt rocess. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 52, 511-524.</ref> <ref name="Hazen,Shaver,1990">Hazan, C., & Shaver, P. R. (1990). Love and work: An attachment theoretical perspective. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 59, 270-280.</ref> <ref name="Hazen,Shaver,1994">Hazan, C., & Shaver, P. R. (1994). Attachment as an organizational framework for research on close relationships. Psychological Inquiry, 5, 1-22.</ref>

[edit] Basic attachment theory

[edit] Attachment of children to caregivers

Main article: Attachment in children

Attachment theory has led to a new understanding of child development. Children develop different styles of attachment based on experiences and interactions with their caregivers. Four different attachment styles have been identified in children: secure, anxious-ambivalent, anxious-avoidant, and disorganized. Attachment theory has become the dominant theory used today in the study of infant and toddler behavior and in the fields of infant mental health, treatment of children, and related fields. Many evidence-based treatment approaches are based on attachment theory (see section below). Mary Ainsworth was a leader in applying Bowlby's theory to research.

[edit] Attachment in adult romantic relationships

Main article: Attachment in adults

Hazan and Shaver extended attachment theory to adult romantic relationships in 1987. It was originally characterized by three dimensions: secure, anxious/ambivalent and avoidant. Later research showed that attachment is best thought of as two different dimensions: anxiety and avoidance. These dimensions are often drawn as an X and Y axis. In this model secure individuals are low in both anxiety and avoidance. Thus, attachment can also be broken down into four categories: secure, anxious-ambivalent (preoccupied), avoidant (dismissive), and fearful-avoidant. However, people's attachment varies continuously so most researchers do not currently think in terms of categories.

Attachment research into romantic relationships has led to a wide variety of findings. Mario Mikulincer has shown through a wide variety of studies that attachment influences how well people are able to cope with stress in their life. Nancy Collins and colleagues have shown that attachment influences many kinds of care-giving behavior. Jeff Simpson and Steve Rholes have conducted a number of studies showing that attachment influences how people parent their newborn children and how well they are able to cope with the stress of having a newborn child.

[edit] Attachment measures in children

Researchers have developed various ways of assessing attachment in children, including the Strange Situation Protocol developed by Mary Ainsworth and story-based approaches such as Attachment Story Completion Test. These methods allow children to be classified into four attachment styles: secure, anxious-ambivalent, anxious-avoidant, and disorganized. Attachment in adults is commonly measured using the Adult Attachment Interview and self-report questionnaires. Self-report questionnaires have identified two dimensions of attachment, one dealing with anxiety about the relationship, and the other dealing with avoidance in the relationship. These dimensions define four styles of adult attachment: secure, preoccupied, dismissive-avoidant, and fearful-avoidant.

[edit] Attachment measures in Adults

There is a wide variety of attachment measures used in adult attachment research. The most popular measure in the social psychological research is the Experiences in Close Relationships-Revised scale. This scale treats attachment as two dimensions, anxiety and avoidance. The Adult Attachment interview is also commonly used to assess an individual's ability to discuss previous relationships with attachment figures. The interview consists of 36 questions, varying in detail from basic background information to instances of loss and trauma (if any). An independently trained coder determines the consistency of the individual's descriptions based on emotion regulation and content of information in the interview. Developmental psychologists use the Adult Attachment Interview (AAI; George,Kaplan, & Main)or the Adult Attachment Projective (AAP; George, West, & Pettem). The AAI is an interview about attachment experiences that gets recorded and analysed for attachment status. The AAP is a guided interview which uses vague drawings about which the individual can tell a story. The story responses are recorded and decoded for attachment status. Generally attachment style is used by social psychologists interested in romantic attachment, and attachment status by developmental psychologists interested in the individual's state of mind with respect to attachment. The latter is more stable, while the former fluctuates more.

[edit] Attachment measures

Main article: Attachment measures

Researchers have developed various ways of assessing attachment in children, including the Strange Situation and story-based approaches such as Attachment Story Completion Test. These methods allow children to be classified into four attachment styles: secure, anxious-ambivalent, anxious-avoidant, and disorganized. Attachment in adults is commonly measured using the Adult Attachment Interview and self-report questionnaires. Self-report questionnaires have identified two dimensions of attachment, one dealing with anxiety about the relationship, and the other dealing with avoidance in the relationship. These dimensions define four styles of adult attachment: secure, preoccupied, dismissive-avoidant, and fearful-avoidant.

[edit] Attachment theory in clinical practice

[edit] Attachment disorder

Main article: Attachment disorder

Attachment disorder refers to the failure to form normal attachments with caregivers during childhood. This can have adverse effects throughout the lifespan. Clinicians have identified several signs of attachment problems. Attachment problems can be resolved at older ages through appropriate therapeutic interventions. Reputable interventions include Theraplay and Dyadic Developmental Psychotherapy.

[edit] Reactive attachment disorder

Main article: Reactive attachment disorder

Reactive attachment disorder, sometimes called "RAD", is a psychiatric diagnosis (DSM-IV 313.89, ICD-10 F94.1/2). The essential feature of Reactive attachment disorder is markedly disturbed and developmentally inappropriate social relatedness in most contexts that begins before age 5 years and is associated with gross pathological care.

[edit] Dyadic developmental psychotherapy

Main article: Dyadic developmental psychotherapy

Dyadic developmental psychotherapy is an evidence-based treatment approach <ref name="Becker-Weidman, A., & Shell, D., 2005">Becker-Weidman, A., & Shell, D. (2005) Creating Capacity for Attachment. Wood 'N' Barnes, Oklahoma City, OK.</ref> for the treatment of attachment disorder and reactive attachment disorder. Children who have experienced pervasive and extensive trauma, neglect, loss, and/or other dysregulating experiences can benefit from this treatment. Dyadic Developmental Psychotherapy is based on principles derived from attachment theory.

[edit] Theraplay

Main article: Theraplay

Theraplay is a play therapy which has the intention of helping parents and children build better attachment relationships through attachment-based play. It was developed in 1967 by the Psychological Services staff of a Head Start program in Chicago. Theraplay is based on model of healthy parent-infant attachment and interactions.

[edit] References

[edit] See also

[edit] Further reading

Andersson, P. (2006) Determinants of Individual Vulnerability to Heroin Addiction – A Psychosocial Study. A Doctoral thesis, Åbo Akademi University. ISBN 952-12-1677-8.
Becker-Weidman, A., & Shell, D., (Eds). (2005) Creating Capacity for Attachment. Wood N Barnes, Oklahoma City, OK. ISBN 1-885473-72-9
Cassidy, J., & Shaver, P., (Eds). (1999) Handbook of Attachment: Theory, Research, and Clinical Applications. Guilford Press, NY.
Greenberg, MT, Cicchetti, D., & Cummings, EM., (Eds) (1990) Attachment in the Preschool Years: Theory, Research and Intervention University of Chicago, Chicago.
Greenspan, S. (1993) Infancy and Early Childhood. Madison, CT: International Universities Press. ISBN 0-8236-2633-4.
Holmes, J. (1993) John Bowlby and Attachment Theory. Routledge. ISBN 0-415-07730-3.
Holmes, J. (2001) The Search for the Secure Base: Attachment Theory and Psychotherapy. London: Brunner-Routledge. ISBN 1-58391-152-9.
Karen R (1998) Becoming Attached: First Relationships and How They Shape Our Capacity to Love. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-511501-5.
Parkes, CM, Stevenson-Hinde, J., Marris, P., (Eds.) (1991) Attachment Across The Life Cycle Routledge. NY. ISBN 0-415-05651-9
Siegler R., DeLoache, J. & Eisenberg, N. (2003) How Children develop. New York: Worth. ISBN 1-57259-249-4.
Sturt, SM (Ed) (2006). New Developments in Child Abuse Research Nove, NY. ISBN 1-59454-980-X
Attachment & Human Development. This is a professional peer-reviewed journal.
Infant Mental Health. This is a professional peer-reviewed journal.