Boy player
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Boy player is a common term for the adolescent males employed by English Renaissance playing companies.
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[edit] Origins
The troupes of boy actors prominent in the Elizabethan and Jacobean periods, whom Shakespeare famously called "little eyases" in Hamlet, II, ii,339 (the wonderfully evocative term "eyas" actually meaning an unfledged hawk),<ref>G. Blakemore Evans, ed., The Riverside Shakespeare, Boston, Houghton Mifflin, 1974; p. 1156 n. 339</ref> had grown out of the choirs of boy singers that had been connected with cathedrals and similar institutions since the Middle Ages. (Similar boy choirs, of course, exist to this day.) Thus the choir attached to St. Paul's Cathedral in London since the 12th century was in the 16th century molded into a company of child actors, the Children of Paul's. Similar groups of boy actors were connected with other institutions, including Eton, the Merchant Taylors School, and the ecclesiastical college at Windsor.
[edit] Children's Companies
The boys were generally in the range of 8-12 years old (choirboys are pre-pubescent precisely because their voices have not yet "broken" with puberty). They were musically talented, strictly disciplined, educated in the trivium (grammar, logic, rhetoric), and sometimes fluent in Latin; add in a certain "cuteness factor," and the boys amounted to formidable competition for the companies of adult actors in Elizabethan England. Between 1558 and 1576 (the year James Burbage built The Theatre in London and the age of popular Elzabethan drama began), companies of boy actors performed 46 times at Court, versus only 32 times for companies of adult actors in the same period. The playwright John Lyly earned fame when his "Euphuistic" plays were acted at Court by the Children of Paul's in the 1580s.
The practice of children acting was never free of controversy, however (see Responses, below). In 1590 theatrical performances by the Children of Paul's were suppressed, largely due to Lyly's involvement in the Marprelate controversy. Companies of child actors went out of fashion, and did not return for a decade.
In 1600, however, the practice saw a resurgeance: the Children of the Chapel performed at the private Blackfriars Theatre for much of the first decade of the 17th century. Their performances of the plays of Ben Jonson were especially popular, inspiring Shakespeare's lines about how the boys "carry it away...Hercules and his load too" in Hamlet, II, ii,360-2. (The Globe Theatre was decorated with a statue of Hercules, the playhouse's symbol.) The Children of Paul's were also acting publicly once again at this time.
The children probably attained their greatest notoriety during the Poetomachia or War of the Theatres (1599-1601). Two troupes were intimately involved on the competing sides: the Children of Paul's acted John Marston's Jack Drum's Entertainment (1600) and What You WIll (1601) and Thomas Dekker's Satiromastix (1601), while the Children of the Chapel had Jonson's Cynthia's Revels (1600) and The Poetaster (1601).
The boys' troupes were strongly associated with the satirical comedy of Jonson, Marston, George Chapman, and Thomas Middleton, which has sometimes been described as a coterie drama for gentleman "wits," in contrast to the popular drama of writers like Shakespeare and Thomas Heywood that was performed at the Globe and the other large public theatres.
The brand of coterie drama practiced by Jonson and others was often controversial, however; the official displeasure that greeted the play Eastward Ho, which landed two of its authors in jail, also fell upon the boys who performed it. By 1606 the Children of Paul's had ceased performing, and the Children of the Chapel were no longer associated with the Royal Chapel and had lost royal patronage; they became merely the Children of the Blackfriars. The boys' troupes had ceased public dramatic performance and the fashion died out by about 1615. The Lady Elizabeth's Men was a new company granted a patent on April 27, 1611, under the patronage of King James' daughter Princess Elizabeth; it was reputedly composed, to some significant degree, of veterans of the children's companies, now grown to manhood.
While controversial in their time, the children's companies had been effective in funnelling talented, educated, and experienced young actors into the adult companies. To recapture this influence, Richard Gunnell attempted to start a children's company with 14 boys and several adults when he built the Salisbury Court Theatre in 1629. The enterprise was not a success, because of a long closure of the theatres due to plague soon after its inception; but it did produce Stephen Hammerton, who went on the act with the King's Men, and became an early matinee idol among young women in the audience for his romantic leads.<ref>Andrew Gurr, The Shakespearean Stage, pp. 63-4</ref>
A limited renewal of the practice of children's companies came in 1637, when Christopher Beeston established, under royal warrant, the King and Queen's Young Company, colloquially called Beeston's Boys. The intent was in part to have a structure for training young actors—much as the choirs of the previous century had provided educated and capable talent (though the actors in Beeston's company tended to be older than the boys of the earlier troupes). After the elder Beeston's death in 1638, his son William Beeston continued the company, with uneven success, till the theatres closed in 1642; he even managed to re-form Beeston's Boys for a time once the theatres re-opened in the Restoration.
[edit] Boys in Adult Companies
In playing companies of adult actors, boys were the performers of female roles, in an age when it was considered unacceptable for women to act. Female roles were performed by boys from the beginnings of professional English theatre (in the 1560s) to the closure of the theatres in 1642. Upon the restoration of theatre in 1660, boys were initially utilised but by about 1662 women were permitted to act on stage.
There was no law against women on stage: English Renaissance audiences seem to have simply considered it unthinkable, since no one ever argued in favor of it in the period. The social assumptions and biases involved were so strong as to go unquestioned at the time. Pre-pubescent boys were used because their high-pitched voices sound more like women; however, popular actors might continue playing women well into their 20s.
Boy actors in adult companies apparently served as apprentices, in ways comparable to the practices of other guilds and trades of the age, though for shorter terms—perhaps two or three years instead of the usual seven. (The companies of adult actors were, in Elizabethn legal terms, retainers in noble households, and thus not subject to the legal statutes governing apprentices.)<ref>Individual actors sometimes maintained membership in guilds, precisely for the legal right to bind apprentices for seven years. John Heminges was a member of the grocer's guild throughout his life, and Ben Jonson renewed his membership in the bricklayer's guild in 1599...but probably not because they were enthusiastic about greengrocering and bricklaying.</ref> They performed female roles (and, of course, roles of male children if required) alongside adult male actors playing men. In reference to Shakespeare's company, variously the Lord Chamberlain's Men (1594-1603) or the King's Men (1603 and after): Augustine Philips left bequests to an apprentice, James Sand, and a former apprentice, Samuel Gilburne, in his will, read after his death in 1605; company members William Ostler, John Underwood, and Nathaniel Field had all started their acting careers as Children of the Chapel at the Blackfriars Theatre.
Audience members occasionally recorded positive impressions of the quality of the acting of boy players. When one Henry Jackson saw the King's Men perform Othello at Oxford in 1610, he wrote of the cast's Desdemona in his diary, "She [sic] always acted the matter very well, in her death moved us still more greatly; when lying in bed she implored the pity of those watching with her countenance alone."<ref>Michael Shapiro, "The Introduction of Actresses in England: Delay or Defensiveness?," in Comensoli and Russell, p. 185.</ref> The mere fact that Jackson referred to the boy as "she," when he certainly knew better rationally, may in itself testify to the strength of the illusion.
[edit] Responses
Many Puritan preachers, who hated the theatre in general, were outraged by the use of boy players, which they believed to encourage homosexual lust. In 1583, Philip Stubbes complained that plays were full of "such wanton gestures, such bawdy speeches...such kissing and bussing" that playgoers would go home together "very friendly...and play the sodomites, or worse."<ref>Philip Stubbes, The Anatomy of Abuses (1583), quoted in Bruce R. Smith, ed. Twelfth Night: Texts and Contexts (New York: Bedford St Martin's, 2001), p. 275.</ref> John Rainolds warned of the "filthy sparkles of lust to that vice the putting of women's attire on men may kindle in unclean affections."<ref>John Rainolds, The Overthrow of Stage Playes (1599), quoted in Smith, Twelfth Night, p. 276</ref>
In response to such comments, the actor-playwright Thomas Heywood protested that audiences were capable of distancing themselves: "To see our youths attired in the habit of women, who knows not what there intents be? Who cannot distinguish them by their names, assuredly knowing they are but to represent such a lady, at such a time appointed?"<ref>Thomas Heywood, An Apology for Actors (1612), quoted in Smith, Twelfth Night, p. 276</ref>
[edit] Famous Boy Players
- Christopher Beeston was perhaps the greatest success story among the child actors (at least in worldly terms). He continued his acting career into his maturity, became a theatre manager, and by the 1620s and '30s was arguably the most influential man in the world of London theatre.
- Nathaniel Field was another success story of the children's companies. In Bartholomew Fair, Jonson hailed him as the "best" of the young actors ("Which is your best actor, your Field?"). As an adult, Field acted with the King's Men, and wrote creditable plays as well.
- Solomon Pavy became one of the Children of the Chapel in 1600, at the age of ten. He acted in Jonson's Cynthia's Revels and The Poetaster. When he died prematurely in 1603, Jonson wrote an epitaph for him, praising Pavy's talent for playing old men.
- Alexander Cooke was the boy who is thought to have created many of Shakespeare's heroines on stage. He remained with the King's Men as an adult actor.
- Joseph Taylor graduated from the Children of the Chapel, via Lady Elizabeth's Men and the Duke of York's/Prince Charles' Men, to replace the late Richard Burbage as the leading man of the King's Men. He played Hamlet, Othello, and all the major Shakespearean roles.
- Stephen Hammerton was a prominent boy actor with the King's Men in the last decade of English Renaissance theatre, 1632-42.
- Charles Hart started out as a boy player with the King's Men, earning fame for his portrayal of the Duchess in Shirley's The Cardinal (1641). He became a leading man and a star of the stage during the Restoration.
- Edward Kynaston was the last prominent boy actor; he worked during the Restoration.
[edit] Notes
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[edit] References
- Viviana Comensoli and Anne Russell, eds., Enacting Gender on the English Renaissance Stage, Champaigne, IL, University of Illinois Press, 1998.
- E. K. Chambers, The Elizabethan Stage, 4 Volumes, Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1923.
- Andrew Gurr, The Shakespearean Stage 1574-1642, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1992.
- F. E. Halliday, A Shakespeare Companion 1564-1964, Baltimore, Penguin, 1964.
