Canada

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For other uses of "Canada" and "Canadian", see Canada (disambiguation) and Canadian (disambiguation).

Flag of Canada	Arms of Canada
Flag	Arms

        </td>
      </tr><tr> <td colspan="3" style="line-height:1.2em; text-align:center;">Motto: A Mari Usque Ad Mare  (Latin)
"From Sea to Sea"</td>
       </tr><tr>
         <td class="anthem" colspan="3" style="line-height:1.2em; text-align:center;">Anthem: "O Canada"
Royal anthem: "God Save the Queen"<ref>Department of Canadian Heritage. "Ceremonial and Canadian Symbols Promotion > Royal anthem "God Save The Queen"". Queen's Printer for Canada. http://www.pch.gc.ca/pgm/ceem-cced/symbl/godsave-eng.cfm. Retrieved 25 June 2010. </ref><ref>Kallmann, Helmut. "The Canadian Encyclopedia". In Marsh, James Harley. Encyclopedia of Music in Canada > Musical Genres > National and royal anthems. Toronto: Historica Foundation of Canada. http://thecanadianencyclopedia.com/index.cfm?PgNm=TCE&Params=U1ARTU0002533. Retrieved 25 June 2010 </ref></td>
       </tr><tr>

Projection of North America with Canada in green

         </td>
       </tr><tr class="mergedtoprow"><td colspan="2">Capital</td><td>Ottawa
45°24′N 75°40′W / 45.4°N 75.667°W / 45.4; -75.667
                    </td></tr>
                  <tr class="mergedbottomrow">
                    <th colspan="2">Largest city</th>
                    <td>Toronto</td></tr><tr>
         <th colspan="2" style="vertical-align:middle; white-space:nowrap;">Official language(s)</th>
         <td>English and French</td>
       </tr><tr class="mergedbottomrow">
              <td colspan="2">Recognised regional languages</td>
              <td style="vertical-align:middle;">Inuktitut, Inuinnaqtun, Cree, Dëne Sųłiné, Gwich’in, Inuvialuktun, Slavey and Tłįchǫ Yatiì<ref>"Official Languages Act – 1985, c. 31 (4th Supp.)". Act current to July 11th, 2010. Department of Justice. http://laws.justice.gc.ca/eng/O-3.01/page-1.html. Retrieved 2010-08-15. </ref></td>
            </tr><tr>
         <th colspan="2">Demonym</th>
         <td>Canadian
         </td>
       </tr><tr>
         <th colspan="2">Government</th>
         <td>Federal parliamentary democracy and constitutional monarchy<ref>D'Aquino, Thomas; Doern, G. Bruce; Blair, Cassandra (1983). Parliamentary democracy in Canada: issues for reform. ITP Nelson. p. 2. ISBN 0458962902. http://books.google.ca/books?id=GakOAAAAQAAJ&lpg=PP1&dq=Parliamentary%20democracy%20in%20Canada%3A%20issues%20for%20reform&pg=PA2#v=onepage&q&f=true. Retrieved 2011-01-14. </ref></td>
       </tr><tr class="mergedrow">
         <td style="width:1em; padding:0 0 0 0.6em;"> - </td>
         <td style="padding-left:0em;">Monarch</td>
         <td>Elizabeth II</td>
       </tr><tr class="mergedrow">
         <td style="width:1em; padding:0 0 0 0.6em;"> - </td>
         <td style="padding-left:0em;">Governor General</td>
         <td>David Lloyd Johnston</td>
       </tr><tr class="mergedbottomrow">
         <td style="width:1em; padding:0 0 0 0.6em;"> - </td>
         <td style="padding-left:0em;">Prime Minister</td>
         <td>Stephen Harper</td>
       </tr><tr>
         <th colspan="2">Legislature</th>
         <td>Parliament</td>
     </tr><tr class="mergedrow">
         <td style="width:1em; padding:0 0 0 0.6em;"> - </td>
         <td style="padding-left:0em;">Upper House</td>
         <td>Senate</td>
       </tr><tr class="mergedbottomrow">
         <td style="width:1em; padding:0 0 0 0.6em;"> - </td>
         <td style="padding-left:0em;">Lower House</td>
         <td>House of Commons</td>
       </tr><tr class="mergedtoprow"><th colspan="3">Establishment</th></tr><tr class="mergedrow">
         <td style="width:1em; padding:0 0 0 0.6em;"> - </td>
         <td style="padding-left:0em;">British North America Acts</td>
         <td>July 1, 1867 </td>
       </tr><tr class="mergedrow">
         <td style="width:1em; padding:0 0 0 0.6em;"> - </td>
         <td style="padding-left:0em;">Statute of Westminster</td>
         <td>December 11, 1931 </td>
       </tr><tr class="mergedbottomrow">
         <td style="width:1em; padding:0 0 0 0.6em;"> - </td>
         <td style="padding-left:0em;">Canada Act</td>
         <td>April 17, 1982 </td>
       </tr><tr class="mergedtoprow">
         <th colspan="3">Area</th>
       </tr>
       <tr class="mergedrow">
         <td style="width:1em; padding:0 0 0 0.6em;"> - </td>
         <td style="padding-left:0em;">Total</td>
         <td> 9,984,670 km² (2nd)
3,854,085 sq mi </td>
       </tr><tr class="mergedrow">
         <td style="width:1em; padding:0 0 0 0.6em;"> - </td>
         <td style="padding-left:0em;">Water (%)</td>
         <td>8.92 (891,163 km²/344,080 mi²)</td>
       </tr><tr class="mergedtoprow">
         <th colspan="3">Population</th>
       </tr><tr class="mergedrow">
            <td style="width:1em; padding:0 0 0 0.6em;"> - </td>
            <td style="padding-left:0em;">2012 estimate</td>
            <td>34,851,000<ref>"Canada's population clock". Statistics Canada. http://www.statcan.gc.ca/pub/82-003-x/pop/pop-h-clock-eng.htm. Retrieved 2012-05-20.

</ref> (36th)</td>

          </tr><tr class="mergedrow">
              <td style="width:1em; padding:0 0 0 0.6em;"> - </td>
              <td style="padding-left:0em;">2006 census</td>
              <td>31,241,030<ref>"Ethnic origins, 2006 counts, for Canada, provinces and territories – 20% sample data". Statistics Canada. 2008-01-04. http://www12.statcan.ca/english/census06/data/highlights/ethnic/pages/Page.cfm?Lang=E&Geo=PR&Code=01&Table=2&Data=Count&StartRec=1&Sort=3&Display=All/. Retrieved 2009-10-19. </ref> </td>
            </tr><tr class="mergedbottomrow">
         <td style="width:1em; padding:0 0 0 0.6em;"> - </td>
         <td style="padding-left:0em;">Density</td>
         <td>3.41/km² (228th)
8.3/sq mi</td>
       </tr><tr class="mergedtoprow">
         <td colspan="2">GDP (PPP)</td>
         <td>2010 estimate</td>
       </tr>
       <tr class="mergedrow">
         <td style="width:1em; padding:0 0 0 0.6em;"> - </td>
         <td style="padding-left:0em;">Total</td>
         <td>$1.330 trillion<ref name=imf2>"Canada". International Monetary Fund. http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2010/01/weodata/weorept.aspx?sy=2007&ey=2010&scsm=1&ssd=1&sort=country&ds=.&br=1&c=156&s=NGDPD%2CNGDPDPC%2CPPPGDP%2CPPPPC%2CLP&grp=0&a=&pr.x=39&pr.y=14. Retrieved 2010-04-21. </ref> </td>
       </tr><tr class="mergedbottomrow">
            <td style="width:1em; padding:0 0 0 0.6em;"> - </td>
            <td style="padding-left:0em;">Per capita</td>
            <td>$39,037<ref name="imf2"/> </td>
          </tr><tr class="mergedtoprow">
         <td colspan="2">GDP (nominal)</td>
         <td>2010 estimate</td>
       </tr>
       <tr class="mergedrow">
         <td style="width:1em; padding:0 0 0 0.6em;"> - </td>
         <td style="padding-left:0em;">Total</td>
         <td>$1.556 trillion<ref name="imf2"/> </td>
       </tr><tr class="mergedbottomrow">
            <td style="width:1em; padding:0 0 0 0.6em;"> - </td>
            <td style="padding-left:0em;">Per capita</td>
            <td>$45,657<ref name="imf2"/> </td>
          </tr><tr>
         <td colspan="2">Gini (2005)</td>
         <td>32.1<ref>"Distribution of family income – Gini index". The World Factbook. CIA. https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2172.html. Retrieved 2009-09-01. </ref> (medium) </td>
       </tr><tr>
         <td colspan="2">HDI (2010)</td>
         <td>11px 0.888<ref name="HDI">"Human Development Report 2010". United Nations. 2010. http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/HDR_2010_EN_Table1.pdf. Retrieved 5 November 2010. </ref> (very high) (8th)</td>
       </tr><tr>
         <th colspan="2" style="vertical-align:middle;">Currency</th>
         <td>Canadian Dollar ($) (CAD) </td>
       </tr><tr class="mergedtoprow">
         <th colspan="2">Time zone</th>
         <td> (UTC−3.5 to −8)</td>
       </tr><tr class="mergedbottomrow">
              <td style="width:1em; padding:0 0 0 0.6em;"> - </td>
              <td style="padding-left:0em;">Summer (DST)</td>
              <td> (UTC−2.5 to −7)</td>
            </tr><tr>
         <th colspan="2">Date formats</th>
         <td>dd-mm-yyyy, mm-dd-yyyy, and yyyy-mm-dd (CE)</td>
       </tr><tr>
         <th colspan="2">Drives on the</th>
         <td>Right</td>
       </tr><tr class="mergedtoprow">
     <th colspan="2">ISO 3166 code</th>
     <td>CA</td>
     </tr><tr>
         <th colspan="2">Internet TLD</th>
         <td>.ca</td>
       </tr><tr>
         <th colspan="2">Calling code</th>
         <td>+1</td>
       </tr><tr>
         <td colspan="3">Canada portal</td>
       </tr></table>

Canada (11px /ˈkænədə/) is a North American country consisting of ten provinces and three territories. Located in the northern part of the continent, it extends from the Atlantic Ocean in the east to the Pacific Ocean in the west and northward into the Arctic Ocean. It is the world's second largest country by total area. Canada's common border with the United States to the south and northwest is the longest in the world.

The land that is now Canada was inhabited for millennia by various groups of Aboriginal peoples. Beginning in the late 15th century, British and French expeditions explored, and later settled, along the Atlantic coast. France ceded nearly all of its colonies in North America in 1763 after the Seven Years' War. In 1867, with the union of three British North American colonies through Confederation, Canada was formed as a federal dominion of four provinces. This began an accretion of provinces and territories and a process of increasing autonomy from the United Kingdom. This widening autonomy was highlighted by the Statute of Westminster of 1931 and culminated in the Canada Act of 1982, which severed the vestiges of legal dependence on the British parliament.

Canada is a federation that is governed as a parliamentary democracy and a constitutional monarchy with Queen Elizabeth II as its head of state. It is a bilingual nation with both English and French as official languages at the federal level. One of the world's highly developed countries, Canada has a diversified economy that is reliant upon its abundant natural resources and upon trade—particularly with the United States, with which Canada has had a long and complex relationship. It is a member of the G8, G-20, NATO, OECD, WTO, Commonwealth, Francophonie, OAS, APEC, and UN.

[edit] History

Main article: History of Canada

[edit] Etymology

Main article: Name of Canada

The name Canada comes from a St. Lawrence Iroquoian word, kanata, meaning "village" or "settlement".<ref name=origin>"Origin of the Name, Canada". Canadian Heritage (Government of Canada). 2008. http://www.pch.gc.ca/pgm/ceem-cced/symbl/o5-eng.cfm. Retrieved 2010-06-27. </ref> In 1535, indigenous inhabitants of the present-day Quebec City region used the word to direct French explorer Jacques Cartier towards the village of Stadacona.<ref name="maura"/> Cartier later used the word Canada to refer not only to that particular village, but also the entire area subject to Donnacona (the chief at Stadacona); by 1545, European books and maps had begun referring to this region as Canada.<ref name="maura">Maura, Juan Francisco (2009). "Nuevas aportaciones al estudio de la toponimia ibérica en la América Septentrional en el siglo XVI". Bulletin of Spanish Studies (Routledge) 86 (5): 577–603. doi:10.1080/14753820902969345. </ref>

In the 17th and early 18th century, Canada referred to the part of New France that lay along the Saint Lawrence River and the northern shores of the Great Lakes. The area was later split into two British colonies, Upper Canada and Lower Canada. They were re-unified as the Province of Canada in 1841.<ref>Rayburn, Alan (2001). Naming Canada: Stories of Canadian Place Names (2nd ed.). Toronto: University of Toronto Press. pp. 1–22. ISBN 0-8020-8293-9. http://books.google.ca/books?id=aiUZMOypNB4C&printsec=frontcover&dq=Naming+Canada:+Stories+of+Canadian+Place+Names&hl=en&ei=e1kvTYKOA8SBlAfct6nQCw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CCwQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=true. Retrieved 2011-01-14. </ref> Upon Confederation in 1867, the name Canada was adopted as the legal name for the new country, and Dominion (a term from Psalm 72:8)<ref>Clarke, Michael (1998). Canada: Portraits of the Faith. Reel to Real. p. 60. ISBN 0968183506. </ref> was conferred as the country's title. Combined, the term Dominion of Canada was in common usage until the 1950s.<ref name="buckner"/> As Canada asserted its political autonomy from the United Kingdom, the federal government increasingly used simply Canada on state documents and treaties, a change that was reflected in the renaming of the national holiday from Dominion Day to Canada Day in 1982.<ref name="buckner">Phillip Buckner, ed (2008). Canada and the British Empire. Oxford University Press. pp. 37–40, 56–59, 114, 124–125. ISBN 019927164X. </ref>

[edit] Aboriginal peoples

Main article: Aboriginal peoples in Canada

Archaeological and Indigenous genetic studies support a human presence in the northern Yukon from 26,500 years ago, and in southern Ontario from 9,500 years ago.<ref name=ancientd>"Y-Chromosome Evidence for Differing Ancient Demographic Histories in the Americas" (PDF). University College London 73:524–539. 2003. doi:10.1086/377588. http://www.ucl.ac.uk/tcga/tcgapdf/Bortolini-AJHG-03-YAmer.pdf. Retrieved 2010-01-22. </ref><ref>Cinq-Mars, J (2001). "On the significance of modified mammoth bones from eastern Beringia" (PDF). The World of Elephants – International Congress, Rome. http://web.archive.org/web/*/http://www.palanth.com/forum/upload_download/articles/cinqmars_elefanti_01.pdf. Retrieved 2010-02-25. </ref><ref>Wright, JV (2001-09-27). "A History of the Native People of Canada: Early and Middle Archaic Complexes". Canadian Museum of Civilization Corporation. http://www.civilization.ca/cmc/exhibitions/archeo/hnpc/npvol04e.shtml. Retrieved 2009-10-19. </ref> Old Crow Flats and Bluefish Caves are two of the earliest archaeological sites of human (Paleo-Indians) habitation in Canada.<ref name=Griebel>Griebel, Ron. "The Bluefish Caves". Minnesota State University. http://www.mnsu.edu/emuseum/archaeology/sites/northamerica/bluefishcaves.html. Retrieved 2009-09-18. </ref><ref>"Beringia: humans were here" (re-published online by Canada.com). Gazette (Montreal). CanWest MediaWorks Publications Inc.. May 17, 2008. http://www.canada.com/montrealgazette/news/saturdayextra/story.html?id=2a31375e-e834-407d-b8db-2a0010ad4acf&p=2. Retrieved 2009-09-18. </ref><ref name=Jacques1>Cinq-Mars, Jacques (2001). "Significance of the Bluefish Caves in Beringian Prehistory". Canadian Museum of Civilization. p. 2. http://www.civilization.ca/cmc/explore/resources-for-scholars/essays/archaeology/jacques-cinq-mars/significance-of-the-bluefish-caves-in-beringian-prehistory2#four. Retrieved 2010-04-15. </ref> Among the First Nations peoples, there are eight unique stories of creation and their adaptations.<ref>Dickason, Olive, ed (1995). The Native Imprint: The Contribution of First Peoples to Canada's Character. 1. Athabasca: Athabasca University Educational Enterprises. pp. 114–117. </ref> The characteristics of Canadian Aboriginal societies included permanent settlements,<ref>Darnell, Regna (2001). Invisible genealogies: a history of Americanist anthropology. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press. p. 338. ISBN 0803217102. http://books.google.ca/books?id=lwqYG0VJC7UC&lpg=PP1&dq=Invisible%20genealogies%3A%20a%20history%20of%20Americanist%20anthropology%20%20By%20Regna%20Darnell&pg=PA338#v=onepage&q&f=true. Retrieved 2010-10-03. </ref> agriculture,<ref>Cameron, Rondo E (1993). A concise economic history of the world: from Paleolithic times to the present. Oxford University Press. p. 92. ISBN 0195074459. http://books.google.ca/books?id=aEHX63g1XsYC&lpg=PP1&dq=A%20concise%20economic%20history%20of%20the%20world%3A%20from%20Paleolithic%20times%20to%20the%20present%20%20By%20Rondo%20E.%20Cameron&pg=PA92#v=onepage&q&f=true. Retrieved 2010-10-03. </ref> civic and ceremonial architecture,<ref>"Architectural History: Early First Nations". The Canadian Encyclopedia (Historica-Dominion). 2010. http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.com/index.cfm?PgNm=TCE&Params=A1ARTA0009249. Retrieved 2010-10-03. </ref> complex societal hierarchies and trading networks.<ref>Macklem, Patrick (2001). Indigenous difference and the Constitution of Canada. University of Toronto Press. p. 170. ISBN 0802041957. http://books.google.ca/books?id=quM1xyFyfhQC&lpg=PP1&dq=indigenous%20difference%20and%20the%20Constitution%20of%20Canada%20By%20Patrick%20Macklem&pg=PA170#v=onepage&q&f=true. Retrieved 2010-10-03. </ref> Some of these cultures had long faded by the time of the first permanent European arrivals (c. late 15th–early 16th centuries), and have been discovered through archaeological investigations.

The aboriginal population is estimated to have been between 200,000<ref name="dying"/> and two million in the late 15th century,<ref name=Steckel>Thornton, Russell (2000). "Population history of Native North Americans". In Michael R. Haines, Richard Hall Steckel. A population history of North America. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 13, 380. ISBN 0521496667. http://books.google.ca/books?id=BPdgiysIVcgC&lpg=PP1&dq=A%20population%20history%20of%20North%20America&pg=PA13#v=onepage&q&f=true. Retrieved 2011-01-14. </ref> with a figure of 500,000 currently accepted by Canada's Royal Commission on Aboriginal Health.<ref>Bailey, Garrick Alan (2008). Handbook of North American Indians: Indians in contemporary society. Government Printing Office. p. 285. ISBN 0160803888. http://books.google.ca/books?id=Z1IwUbZqjTUC&lpg=PP1&dq=Handbook%20of%20North%20American%20Indians%3A%20Indians%20in%20contemporary%20society&pg=PA285#v=onepage&q&f=true. Retrieved 2011-01-14. </ref> Repeated outbreaks of European infectious diseases such as influenza, measles and smallpox (to which they had no natural immunity), combined with other effects of European contact, resulted in a forty to eighty percent aboriginal population decrease post-contact.<ref name="dying">Wilson, Donna M; Northcott, Herbert C (2008). Dying and Death in Canada. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. pp. 25–27. ISBN 9781551118734. http://books.google.com/?id=p_pMVs53mzQC&pg=PA25&dq&q=. Retrieved 2010-06-20. </ref> Aboriginal peoples in Canada include the First Nations,<ref name="First Nations Culture Areas Index">"Civilization.ca-Gateway to Aboriginal Heritage-Culture". Canadian Museum of Civilization Corporation. Government of Canada. May 12, 2006. http://www.civilization.ca/cmc/exhibitions/tresors/ethno/etb0170e.shtml. Retrieved 2009-09-18. </ref> Inuit,<ref name="ICCcharter">"Inuit Circumpolar Council (Canada)-ICC Charter". Inuit Circumpolar Council > ICC Charter and By-laws > ICC Charter. 2007. Archived from the original on 2008-02-26. http://web.archive.org/web/20080226023243/http://inuitcircumpolar.com/index.php?auto_slide=&ID=374&Lang=En&Parent_ID=&current_slide_num=. Retrieved 2009-09-18. </ref> and Métis.<ref>"In the Kawaskimhon Aboriginal Moot Court Factum of the Federal Crown Canada" (PDF). Faculty of Law. University of Manitoba. 2007. p. 2. Archived from the original on 2009-11-19. http://www.webcitation.org/5lOHtrRJy. Retrieved 2009-09-18. </ref> The Métis a culture of mixed blood originated in the mid-17th century when First Nation and Inuit married European settlers.<ref name=testt>"What to Search: Topics-Canadian Genealogy Centre-Library and Archives Canada". Ethno-Cultural and Aboriginal Groups. Government of Canada. 2009-05-27. http://www.collectionscanada.gc.ca/genealogie/022-905.004-e.html. Retrieved 2009-10-02. </ref> The Inuit had more limited interaction with European settlers during the colonization period.<ref name=warin>"Innu Culture 3. Innu-Inuit 'Warfare'". 1999, Adrian Tanner Department of Anthropology-Memorial University of Newfoundland. http://www.heritage.nf.ca/aboriginal/innu_culture.html. Retrieved 2009-10-05. </ref>

[edit] European colonization

Main articles: New France and Canada under British Imperial control

Further information: Former colonies and territories in Canada

File:Benjamin West 005.jpg

Benjamin West's The Death of General Wolfe (1771) dramatizes Wolfe's death during the Battle of the Plains of Abraham at Quebec in 1759; the battle was part of the Seven Years' War

Europeans first arrived when Norse sailors settled briefly at L'Anse aux Meadows in Newfoundland around 1000.<ref>Pálsson, Hermann (1965). The Vinland sagas: the Norse discovery of America. Penguin Classics. p. 28. ISBN 0140441549. http://books.google.com/?id=m-4rb_GhQ5EC&lpg=PP1&dq=The%20Vinland%20sagas%3A%20the%20Norse%20discovery%20of%20America&pg=PA28#v=onepage&q. Retrieved 2010-04-15. </ref><ref>Reeves, Arthur Middleton (2009). The Norse Discovery of America. BiblioLife. p. 82. ISBN 9780559054006. http://books.google.com/?id=HkoPUdPM3V8C&pg=PA7&dq=The+Norse+discoverers+of+America,+the+Wineland+sagas&q. Retrieved 2010-04-15. </ref> No further European exploration occurred until 1497, when Italian seafarer Giovanni Caboto (John Cabot) explored Canada's Atlantic coast for England.<ref>"John Cabot's voyage of 1498". Memorial University of Newfoundland (Newfoundland and Labrador Heritage). 2000. http://www.heritage.nf.ca/exploration/cabot1498.html. Retrieved 2010-04-12. </ref> Between 1498 and 1521, Basque and Portuguese mariners established seasonal whaling and fishing outposts along the Atlantic coast.<ref>"Red Bay National Historic Site of Canada". Parks Canada. http://www.pc.gc.ca/lhn-nhs/nl/redbay/natcul/histo.aspx. Retrieved 2010-11-29. "Right and bowhead whales, once plentiful in the waters of coastal Labrador, attracted whalers from the Basque country during the 16th century." </ref><ref>"The Portuguese Explorers". Memorial University of Newfoundland. 2004. http://www.heritage.nf.ca/exploration/portuguese.html. Retrieved 2010-06-27. </ref> In 1534 Jacques Cartier explored the Saint Lawrence River for France.<ref name=historian>Morton, Desmond (2001). A Short History of Canada (6th ed.). Toronto: McClelland & Stewart. pp. 9–17, 17-19, 33, 89-104. ISBN 0-7710-6509-4. http://books.google.ca/books?id=beFgpa6lj-EC&lpg=PP1&dq=A%20Short%20History%20of%20Canada&pg=PA9#v=onepage&q&f=true. Retrieved 2011-01-14. </ref> French explorer Samuel de Champlain arrived in 1603 and established the first permanent European settlements at Port Royal in 1605 and Quebec City in 1608.<ref name=historian/> Among French colonists of New France, Canadiens extensively settled the Saint Lawrence River valley and Acadians settled the present-day Maritimes, while French fur traders and Catholic missionaries explored the Great Lakes, Hudson Bay, and the Mississippi watershed to Louisiana. The French and Iroquois Wars broke out over control of the North American fur trade.<ref name=historian/>

The English established fishing outposts in Newfoundland around 1610 and established the Thirteen Colonies to the south.<ref>Smith, Philip (April 1987). "Transhuman Europeans Overseas: The Newfoundland Case". Current Anthropology (University of Chicago Press) 28 (2): 241–250. doi:10.1086/203526. </ref> A series of four Intercolonial Wars erupted between 1689 and 1763.<ref name=historian/> Mainland Nova Scotia came under British rule with the Treaty of Utrecht (1713); the Treaty of Paris (1763) ceded Canada and most of New France to Britain after the Seven Years' War.<ref>Sarkonak, Ralph (1983). "A Brief Chronology of French Canada, 1534–1982". Yale French Studies (Yale University Press) (65): 275–282. http://www.jstor.org/pss/2930052. </ref>

The Royal Proclamation (1763) carved the Province of Quebec out of New France and annexed Cape Breton Island to Nova Scotia.<ref name="buckner"/> St. John's Island (now Prince Edward Island) became a separate colony in 1769.<ref>Bumsted, JM (1987). Land, settlement, and politics on eighteenth-century Prince Edward Island. McGill-Queen's University Press. p. 30. ISBN 0773505660. http://books.google.ca/books?id=nxXRjL-d6ewC&lpg=PP1&dq=Land%2C%20settlement%2C%20and%20politics%20on%20eighteenth-century&pg=PA30#v=onepage&q&f=true. Retrieved 2011-01-14. </ref> To avert conflict in Quebec, the British passed the Quebec Act of 1774, expanding Quebec's territory to the Great Lakes and Ohio Valley. It re-established the French language, Catholic faith, and French civil law there. This angered many residents of the Thirteen Colonies and helped to fuel the American Revolution.<ref name="buckner"/>

The Treaty of Paris (1783) recognized American independence and ceded territories south of the Great Lakes to the United States. Around 50,000 United Empire Loyalists fled the United States to Canada.<ref>Moore, Christopher (1994). The Loyalist: Revolution Exile Settlement. Toronto: McClelland & Stewart. ISBN 0-7710-6093-9. </ref> New Brunswick was split from Nova Scotia as part of a reorganization of Loyalist settlements in the Maritimes. To accommodate English-speaking Loyalists in Quebec, the Constitutional Act of 1791 divided the province into French-speaking Lower Canada (later the province of Quebec) and English-speaking Upper Canada (later Ontario), granting each its own elected Legislative Assembly.<ref>McNairn, Jeffrey L (2000). The capacity to judge. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. p. 24. ISBN 0802043607. http://books.google.ca/books?id=T_A3pZQrHzIC&lpg=PP1&dq=The%20capacity%20to%20judge.&pg=PA24#v=onepage&q&f=true. Retrieved 2011-01-14. </ref>

File:Fathers of Confederation LAC c001855.jpg

Robert Harris's Fathers of Confederation,<ref>This is a photograph taken in 1885 of the now-destroyed 1884 painting.</ref> an amalgamation of the Charlottetown and Quebec conferences

Canada (Upper and Lower) was the main front in the War of 1812 between the United States and the British Empire. Following the war, large-scale immigration to Canada from Britain and Ireland began in 1815.<ref name=Steckel/> From 1825 to 1846, 626,628 European immigrants landed at Canadian ports.<ref>"Immigration History of Canada". Marianopolis College. 2004. Archived from the original on 2007-12-16. http://web.archive.org/web/20071216101207/http://faculty.marianopolis.edu/c.belanger/QuebecHistory/encyclopedia/ImmigrationHistoryofCanada.htm. Retrieved 2008-01-26. </ref> Between one-quarter and one-third of all Europeans who immigrated to Canada before 1891 died of infectious diseases.<ref name="dying"/> The timber industry surpassed the fur trade in economic importance in the early 19th century.

The desire for responsible government resulted in the aborted Rebellions of 1837. The Durham Report subsequently recommended responsible government and the assimilation of French Canadians into British culture.<ref name="buckner"/> The Act of Union 1840 merged The Canadas into a united Province of Canada. Responsible government was established for all British North American provinces by 1849.<ref>Romney, Paul (Spring 1989). "From Constitutionalism to Legalism: Trial by Jury, Responsible Government, and the Rule of Law in the Canadian Political Culture". Law and History Review (University of Illinois Press) 7 (1): 128. http://www.jstor.org/pss/743779. </ref> The signing of the Oregon Treaty by Britain and the United States in 1846 ended the Oregon boundary dispute, extending the border westward along the 49th parallel. This paved the way for British colonies on Vancouver Island (1849) and in British Columbia (1858).<ref>Evenden, Leonard J; Turbeville, Daniel E (1992). "The Pacific Coast Borderland and Frontier". In Donald G. Janelle. Geographical snapshots of North America. Guilford Press. p. 52. ISBN 0898620309. http://books.google.ca/books?id=ucv1a7FiCB0C&lpg=PP1&dq=Geographical%20snapshots%20of%20North%20America&pg=PA52#v=onepage&q&f=true. Retrieved 2011-01-14. </ref> Canada launched a series of exploratory expeditions to claim Rupert's Land and the Arctic region.

[edit] Confederation and expansion

Main articles: Canadian Confederation and Territorial evolution of Canada

File:Canada provinces evolution 2.gif

An animated map, exhibiting the growth and change of Canada's provinces and territories since Confederation

Following several constitutional conferences, the Constitution Act, 1867 officially proclaimed Canadian Confederation, creating "one Dominion under the name of Canada" on July 1, 1867, with four provinces: Ontario, Quebec, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick.<ref name=AoC-dominion>"Territorial evolution". Atlas of Canada. Natural Resources Canada. http://atlas.nrcan.gc.ca/site/english/maps/reference/anniversary_maps/terr_evol. Retrieved 2007-10-09. </ref><ref>"Canada: History". Country Profiles. Commonwealth Secretariat. http://www.thecommonwealth.org/YearbookInternal/145152/history/. Retrieved 2007-10-09. </ref><ref name=bothwell>Bothwell, Robert (1996). History of Canada Since 1867. East Lansing, MI: Michigan State University Press. pp. 207–310. ISBN 0-87013-399-3. </ref> Canada assumed control of Rupert's Land and the North-Western Territory to form the Northwest Territories, where the Métis' grievances ignited the Red River Rebellion and the creation of the province of Manitoba in July 1870.<ref>Bumsted, JM (1996). The Red River Rebellion. Winnipeg: Watson & Dwyer. ISBN 0920486231. </ref> British Columbia and Vancouver Island (which had united in 1866) and the colony of Prince Edward Island joined the Confederation in 1871 and 1873, respectively.<ref name=canatlas>"Building a nation". The Canadian Atlas. http://www.canadiangeographic.ca/Atlas/themes.aspx?id=building&sub=building_basics_confederation&lang=En. Retrieved 2009-09-18. </ref> Prime Minister John A. Macdonald's Conservative government established a national policy of tariffs to protect nascent Canadian manufacturing industries.<ref>Bothwell, Robert (1996) (p. 31).</ref>

To open the West, the government sponsored construction of three transcontinental railways (including the Canadian Pacific Railway), opened the prairies to settlement with the Dominion Lands Act, and established the North-West Mounted Police to assert its authority over this territory.<ref>"Sir John A. Macdonald". Library and Archives Canada. 2008. http://www.collectionscanada.gc.ca/sir-john-a-macdonald/023013-5000-e.html. Retrieved 2009-09-18. </ref><ref>Cook, Terry (2000). "The Canadian West: An Archival Odyssey through the Records of the Department of the Interior". The Archivist. Library and Archives Canada. http://www.collectionscanada.gc.ca/publications/archivist-magazine/015002-2230-e.html. Retrieved 2009-09-18. </ref> In 1898, after the Klondike Gold Rush in the Northwest Territories, the Canadian government created the Yukon Territory. Under Liberal Prime Minister Wilfrid Laurier, continental European immigrants settled the prairies, and Alberta and Saskatchewan became provinces in 1905.<ref name="canatlas" />

[edit] Early 20th century

Main article: Canada in the World Wars and Interwar Years

File:Canadian tank and soldiers Vimy 1917.jpg

Canadian soldiers at the Battle of Vimy Ridge in 1917

Because Britain still maintained control of Canada's foreign affairs under the Confederation Act, its declaration of war in 1914 automatically brought Canada into World War I.<ref name="morton-milhist">Morton, Desmond (1999). A military history of Canada (4th ed.). Toronto: McClelland & Stewart. pp. 130–158, 173, 203–233, 258. ISBN 0771065140. http://books.google.ca/books?id=ui8ecMckv08C&lpg=PP1&dq=A%20military%20history%20of%20Canada&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=true. Retrieved 2011-01-14. </ref> Volunteers sent to the Western Front later became part of the Canadian Corps.<ref name="morton-milhist"/> The Corps played a substantial role in the Battle of Vimy Ridge and other major battles of the war.<ref name="morton-milhist"/> Out of approximately 625,000 who served, about 60,000 were killed and another 173,000 were wounded.<ref>Haglund, David G; MacFarlane, S Neil (1999). Security, strategy and the global economics of defence production. McGill-Queen's University Press. p. 12. ISBN 0889118752. </ref> The Conscription Crisis of 1917 erupted when conservative Prime Minister Robert Borden brought in compulsory military service over the objection of French-speaking Quebecers.<ref name="morton-milhist"/> In 1919, Canada joined the League of Nations independently of Britain and,<ref name="morton-milhist"/> in 1931, the Statute of Westminster affirmed Canada's independence.<ref name="westminster">Dellinger, Walter (Autumn 1982). "The Amending Process in Canada and the United States: A Comparative Perspective". Law & Contemporary Problems (Duke Law School) 45 (4): 291. http://www.jstor.org/pss/1191553. </ref>

The Great Depression brought economic hardship all over Canada. In response, the Co-operative Commonwealth Federation (CCF) in Alberta and Saskatchewan enacted many measures of a welfare state (as pioneered by Tommy Douglas) into the 1940s and 1950s.<ref>Young, Walter (1983). "Canada: The Social Democracy of Provincial Government in a Federal System". In Peter Davis. Social Democracy in the South Pacific. 2. Auckland, New Zealand: Ross. pp. 48–58. ISBN 0908636350. </ref> Canada declared war on Germany independently during World War II under Liberal Prime Minister William Lyon Mackenzie King, three days after Britain. The first Canadian Army units arrived in Britain in December 1939.<ref name="morton-milhist"/>

Canadian troops played important roles in the failed 1942 Dieppe Raid in France, the Allied invasion of Italy, the D-Day landings, the Battle of Normandy, and the Battle of the Scheldt in 1944.<ref name="morton-milhist"/> Canada provided asylum and protection for the monarchy of the Netherlands while that country was occupied, and is credited by the country for leadership and major contribution to its liberation from Nazi Germany.<ref name="netherlands">Goddard, Lance (2005). Canada and the Liberation of the Netherlands. Dundurn Press Ltd. pp. 225–232. ISBN 1550025473. http://books.google.ca/books?id=yjVaApRR1g0C&lpg=PP1&dq=Canada%20and%20the%20Liberation%20of%20the%20Netherlands.&pg=PA226#v=onepage&q&f=true. Retrieved 2011-01-14. </ref> The Canadian economy boomed as industry manufactured military materiel for Canada, Britain, China, and the Soviet Union.<ref name="morton-milhist"/> Despite another Conscription Crisis in Quebec, Canada finished the war with one of the largest armed forces in the world and the second-wealthiest economy.<ref name="stacey">Stacey, CP (1948) (PDF donload, 22.9 MB). History of the Canadian Army in the Second World War. 1. Queen's Printer. pp. 324–327. http://www.cmp-cpm.forces.gc.ca/dhh-dhp/his/oh-ho/detail-eng.asp?BfBookLang=1&BfId=27. </ref><ref>Sherwood, George; Sherwood, Stewart (2006). Legends in their time. Natural Heritage Books. p. 162. ISBN 1897045107. http://books.google.ca/books?id=_I10ROFGbK4C&lpg=PP1&dq=Legends%20in%20their%20time&pg=PA162#v=onepage&q&f=true. Retrieved 2011-01-14. </ref>

[edit] Modern times

Main articles: History of Canada (1945–1960), (1960–1981), (1982–1992), and (1992–present)

File:Alexander-NFLD.jpg

At Rideau Hall, Governor General the Viscount Alexander of Tunis (centre) receives for his signature the bill finalizing the union of Newfoundland and Canada, March 31, 1949

Newfoundland (now Newfoundland and Labrador) joined Canada in 1949.<ref>W.F. Summers. "Newfoundland and Labrador". The Canadian Encyclopedia. Historica Foundation. http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.com/index.cfm?PgNm=TCE&Params=a1ARTA0005714#SEC925203. Retrieved 2010-11-24. </ref> Canada's post-war economic growth, combined with the policies of successive Liberal governments, led to the emergence of a new Canadian identity, marked by the adoption of the current Maple Leaf Flag in 1965,<ref>Mackey, Eva (2002). The house of difference: cultural politics and national identity in Canada. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. p. 57. ISBN 0802084818. </ref> the implementation of official bilingualism (English and French) in 1969,<ref>Esman, Milton J (Summer 1982). "The Politics of Official Bilingualism in Canada". Political Science Quarterly (The Academy of Political Science) 97 (2): 233–253. doi:10.2307/2149477. http://jstor.org/stable/2149477. </ref> and official multiculturalism in 1971.<ref>Esses, Victoria M; Gardner, RC (July 1996). "Multiculturalism in Canada: Context and current status". Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science (American Psychological Association) 28 (3): 145–152. http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa3717/is_199607/ai_n8749492/. </ref> There was also the founding of socially democratic programmes, such as universal health care, the Canada Pension Plan, and Canada Student Loans, though provincial governments, particularly Quebec and Alberta, opposed many of these as incursions into their jurisdictions.<ref>Sarrouh, Elissar (2002-01-22). "Social Policies in Canada: A Model for Development". Social Policy Series, No. 1. United Nations. pp. 14–16, 22–37. http://www.escwa.un.org/information/publications/edit/upload/sd-01-09.pdf. Retrieved 2010-01-17. </ref> Finally, another series of constitutional conferences resulted in the 1982 patriation of Canada's constitution from the United Kingdom, concurrent with the creation of the Charter of Rights and Freedoms.<ref name=bickerton>Bickerton, James; Gagnon, Alain, eds (2004). Canadian Politics (4th ed.). Orchard Park, NY: Broadview Press. pp. 250–254, 344–347. ISBN 1-55111-595-6. http://books.google.ca/books?id=1jd6oqRHxLYC&lpg=PP1&dq=Canadian%20Politics&pg=PA250#v=onepage&q&f=true. Retrieved 2011-01-14. </ref> In 1999, Nunavut became Canada's third territory after a series of negotiations with the federal government.<ref>Légaré, André (2008). "Canada's Experiment with Aboriginal Self-Determination in Nunavut: From Vision to Illusion". International Journal on Minority and Group Rights (Martinus Nijhoff Publishers) 15 (2–3): 335–367. doi:10.1163/157181108X332659. </ref>

At the same time, Quebec underwent profound social and economic changes through the Quiet Revolution of the 1960s, giving birth to a modern nationalist movement. The radical Front de libération du Québec (FLQ) ignited the October Crisis in 1970.<ref name="clift">Clift, Dominique (1982). Quebec nationalism in crisis (reissued ed.). McGill-Queen's University Press. pp. 28–36, 96–99, 106–107. ISBN 0773503838. http://books.google.ca/books?id=ArsBP5Efqx4C&lpg=PP1&dq=Quebec%20nationalism%20in%20crisis&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=true. Retrieved 2011-01-14. </ref> The sovereignist Parti Québécois was elected in 1976 and organized an unsuccessful referendum on sovereignty-association in 1980.<ref name="clift"/> Attempts to accommodate Quebec nationalism constitutionally through the Meech Lake Accord failed in 1990. This led to the formation of the Bloc Québécois in Quebec and invigoration of the Reform Party of Canada in the West.<ref>Leblanc, Daniel (August 13, 2010). "A brief history of the Bloc Québécois". Globe and Mail. http://www.theglobeandmail.com/news/politics/a-brief-history-of-the-bloc-qubcois/article1672831/. Retrieved 2010-11-25. </ref><ref>Betz, Hans-Georg; Immerfall, Stefan (1998). The new politics of the Right: neo-Populist parties and movements in .... St. Martinʼs Press. p. 173. ISBN 0312211341. http://books.google.ca/books?id=H9cGkDJgW7wC&lpg=PA174&dq=origins%20of%20the%20Reform%20Party%20of%20Canada&pg=PA173#v=onepage&q&f=true. Retrieved 2010-11-25. </ref> A second referendum followed in 1995, in which sovereignty was rejected by a slimmer margin of just 50.6% to 49.4%.<ref name="dickinson">Dickinson, John Alexander; Young, Brian (2003). A Short History of Quebec (3rd ed.). Montreal: McGill-Queen's University Press. pp. 357–360. ISBN 0-7735-2450-9. http://books.google.ca/books?id=kRHmr-rDFrwC&lpg=PP1&dq=A%20Short%20History%20of%20Quebec&pg=PA357#v=onepage&q&f=true. Retrieved 2011-01-14. </ref> In 1997, the Supreme Court ruled that unilateral secession by a province would be unconstitutional, and the Clarity Act was passed by parliament, outlining the terms of a negotiated departure from Confederation.<ref name="dickinson" />

In addition to the issues of Quebec sovereignty, a number of crises shook Canadian society in the late 1980s and early 1990s. These included the explosion of Air India Flight 182 in 1985, the largest mass murder in Canadian history;<ref>"Commission of Inquiry into the Investigation of the Bombing of Air India Flight 182". Canadian government. Archived from the original on 2008-06-22. http://web.archive.org/web/20080622063429/http://www.majorcomm.ca/en/termsofreference/. Retrieved 2009-06-01. </ref> the École Polytechnique massacre in 1989, a university shooting targeting female students;<ref>Sourour, Teresa K (1991). "Report of Coroner's Investigation" (PDF). http://www.diarmani.com/Montreal_Coroners_Report.pdf. Retrieved 2010-06-07. </ref> and the Oka Crisis in 1990,<ref>"The Oka Crisis" (Digital Archives). Canadian Broadcasting Corporation. 2000. http://archives.cbc.ca/politics/civil_unrest/topics/99/. Retrieved 2010-06-07. </ref> the first of a number of violent confrontations between the government and Aboriginal groups.<ref name="sept11">Roach, Kent (2003). September 11: consequences for Canada. McGill-Queen's University Press. pp. 15, 59–61, 194. ISBN 077352584X. http://books.google.ca/books?id=4HgcfVQbW9EC&lpg=PP1&dq=September%2011%3A%20consequences%20for%20Canada&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=true. Retrieved 2011-01-14. </ref> Canada also joined the Gulf War in 1990 as part of a US-led coalition force, and was active in several peacekeeping missions in the late 1990s.<ref>"Canada and Multilateral Operations in Support of Peace and Stability". National Defence and the Canadian Forces. 2010. http://www.forces.gc.ca/site/news-nouvelles/news-nouvelles-eng.asp?cat=00&id=914. Retrieved 2010-06-07. </ref> It sent troops to Afghanistan in 2001, but declined to send forces to Iraq when the US invaded in 2003.<ref>Jockel, Joseph T; Sokolsky, Joel B (2008). "Canada and the war in Afghanistan: NATO’s odd man out steps forward". Journal of Transatlantic Studies (Routledge) 6 (1): 100–115. doi:10.1080/14794010801917212. </ref>

[edit] Geography

Main article: Geography of Canada

[edit] Climate

Average winter and summer high temperatures across Canada vary according to the location. Winters can be harsh in many regions of the country, particularly in the interior and Prairie provinces, which experience a continental climate, where daily average temperatures are near −15 °C (5 °F) but can drop below −40 °C (−40 °F) with severe wind chills.<ref>The Weather Network. "Statistics, Regina SK". Internet Archive. http://web.archive.org/web/20080404034124rn_1/www.theweathernetwork.com/statistics/C02072/CASK0261?CASK0261. Retrieved 2010-01-18.</ref> In noncoastal regions, snow can cover the ground almost six months of the year (more in the north). Coastal British Columbia enjoys a temperate climate, with a mild and rainy winter. On the east and west coasts, average high temperatures are generally in the low 20s °C (70s °F), while between the coasts, the average summer high temperature ranges from 25 to 30 °C (77 to 86 °F), with occasional extreme heat in some interior locations exceeding 40 °C (104 °F).<ref>"Canadian Climate Normals or Averages 1971–2000". Environment Canada. 2004-02-25. http://climate.weatheroffice.gc.ca/climate_normals/index_e.html. Retrieved 2010-01-18.</ref>

[edit] Government and politics

Main articles: Politics of Canada and Government of Canada

File:Canadian parliament MAM.JPG

Parliament Hill in Canada's capital, Ottawa

Canada has strong democratic traditions upheld through a parliamentary government within the construct of constitutional monarchy, the monarchy of Canada being the foundation of the executive, legislative, and judicial branches and its authority stemming from the Canadian populace.<ref>Victoria (March 29, 1867). Constitution Act, 1867. III.15. Westminster: Queen's Printer. http://www.solon.org/Constitutions/Canada/English/ca_1867.html. Retrieved January 15, 2009. </ref><ref>Smith, David E. (10 June 2010). "The Crown and the Constitution: Sustaining Democracy?". The Crown in Canada: Present Realities and Future Options (Kingston: Queen's University): p. 6. Archived from the original on 2010-06-17. http://www.webcitation.org/5qXvz463C. Retrieved 18 May 2010. </ref><ref>Department of Canadian Heritage (February 2009). Canadian Heritage Portfolio (2 ed.). Ottawa: Queen's Printer for Canada. pp. 3–4. ISBN 978-1-100-11529-0. http://www.pch.gc.ca/pc-ch/publctn/gp-pg/ppc-chp/ppc-chp-eng.pdf. Retrieved July 5, 2009. </ref><ref name=MacLeod16>MacLeod, Kevin S. (2008). A Crown of Maples (1 ed.). Ottawa: Queen's Printer for Canada. p. 16. ISBN 978-0-662-46012-1. http://www.pch.gc.ca/pgm/ceem-cced/fr-rf/crnCdn/crn_mpls-eng.pdf. Retrieved June 21, 2009. </ref> The sovereign is Queen Elizabeth II, who also serves as head of state of 15 other Commonwealth countries and resides predominantly in the United Kingdom. As such, the Queen's representative, the Governor General of Canada (presently David Lloyd Johnston<ref>Office of the Governor General of Canada. "The Governor General > Governor General David Johnston". Queen's Printer for Canada. http://www.gg.ca/document.aspx?id=13874. Retrieved October 1, 2010. </ref>), carries out most of the royal duties in Canada.<ref> Commonwealth public administration reform 2004. Commonwealth Secretariat. 2004. pp. 54–55. ISBN 0117032492. http://books.google.ca/books?id=ATi5R5XNb2MC&lpg=PP1&dq=Commonwealth%20public%20administration%20reform%202004.&pg=PA54#v=onepage&q&f=true. Retrieved 2011-01-14. </ref>

The direct participation of the royal and viceroyal figures in any of these areas of governance is limited, though;<ref name=MacLeod16 /><ref name=Forseyp1>Forsey, Eugene A (2005) (PDF). How Canadians Govern Themselves (6th ed.). Ottawa: Canada. pp. 1, 16. ISBN 0-662-39689-8. http://www2.parl.gc.ca/sites/lop/aboutparliament/forsey/PDFs/How_Canadians_Govern_Themselves-6ed.pdf. Retrieved 2009-10-20. </ref><ref>Marleau, Robert; Montpetit, Camille. "House of Commons Procedure and Practice > 1. Parliamentary Institutions". Queen's Printer for Canada. http://www2.parl.gc.ca/MarleauMontpetit/DocumentViewer.aspx?DocId=1001&Sec=Ch01&Seq=5&Lang=E&Print=2. Retrieved September 28, 2009. </ref><ref>Russell, Peter (1983). "Bold Statecraft, Questionable Jurisprudence". In Banting, Keith G.; Simeon, Richard. And no one cheered: federalism, democracy, and the Constitution Act. Toronto: Taylor & Francis. p. 217. ISBN 9780458959501. http://books.google.com/?id=sUwOAAAAQAAJ&printsec=frontcover&q. Retrieved 12 June 2010. </ref> in practice, their use of the executive powers is directed by the Cabinet, a committee of ministers of the Crown responsible to the elected House of Commons and headed by the Prime Minister of Canada (presently Stephen Harper<ref>"Prime Minister of Canada". Queen's Printer for Canada. 2009. http://www.pm.gc.ca/eng/pm.asp?featureId=7. Retrieved October 23, 2003. </ref>), the head of government. To ensure the stability of government, the governor general will usually appoint as prime minister the person who is the current leader of the political party that can obtain the confidence of a plurality in the House of Commons and the prime minister chooses the Cabinet.<ref name=thinking>Johnson, David (2006). Thinking government: public sector management in Canada (2nd ed.). Toronto: University of Toronto Press. pp. 134–135, 149. ISBN 1551117797. http://books.google.ca/books?id=TcL80sSautgC&lpg=PP1&dq=Thinking%20government%3A%20public%20sector%20management%20in%20Canada&pg=PA134#v=onepage&q&f=true. Retrieved 2011-01-14. </ref> The Prime Minister's Office (PMO) is thus one of the most powerful institutions in government, initiating most legislation for parliamentary approval and selecting for appointment by the Crown, besides the aforementioned, the governor general, lieutenant governors, senators, federal court judges, and heads of Crown corporations and government agencies.<ref name=Forseyp1/> The leader of the party with the second-most seats usually becomes the Leader of Her Majesty's Loyal Opposition (presently Michael Ignatieff<ref>Liberal Party of Canada (2009). "Michael Ignatieff". Federal Liberal Agency of Canada. http://www.liberal.ca/michael-ignatieff/. Retrieved October 23, 2008. </ref>) and is part of an adversarial parliamentary system intended to keep the government in check.

File:Cansenate.jpg

The Senate chamber within the Centre Block on Parliament Hill

Each Member of Parliament in the House of Commons is elected by simple plurality in an electoral district or riding. General elections must be called by the governor general, on the advice of the prime minister, within four years of the previous election, or may be triggered by the government losing a confidence vote in the House.<ref>Dawson, R. MacGregor; Dawson, WF (1989). Norman Ward. ed. Democratic Government in Canada. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. pp. 16–17, 59–60, 66. ISBN 0802067034. http://books.google.ca/books?id=uOSN8PsTOFwC&lpg=PP1&dq=Democratic%20Government%20in%20Canada&pg=PA17#v=onepage&q&f=true. Retrieved 2011-01-14. </ref> Members of the Senate, whose seats are apportioned on a regional basis, serve until age 75.<ref>Hicks, Bruce M.; Blais, André (2008). "Restructuring the Canadian Senate through Elections". IIRP Choices (Institute for Research on Public Policy) 14 (14): 11. http://www.irpp.org/choices/archive/vol14no15.pdf. </ref> Four parties had representatives elected to the federal parliament in the 2008 elections: the Conservative Party of Canada (governing party), the Liberal Party of Canada (the Official Opposition), the New Democratic Party (NDP), and the Bloc Québécois. The list of historical parties with elected representation is substantial.

Canada's federal structure divides government responsibilities between the federal government and the ten provinces. Provincial legislatures are unicameral and operate in parliamentary fashion similar to the House of Commons.<ref>Stevenson, Garth (2004). Unfulfilled union: Canadian federalism and national unity (4th ed.). McGill-Queen's University Press. p. 30. ISBN 0773527443. http://books.google.ca/books?id=ugdgvOynHwYC&lpg=PP1&dq=Unfulfilled%20union%3A%20Canadian%20federalism%20and%20national%20unity&pg=PA30#v=onepage&q&f=true. Retrieved 2011-01-14. </ref> Canada's three territories also have legislatures, but these are not sovereign and have fewer constitutional responsibilities than the provinces and with some structural differences.<ref>Intergovernmental Affairs Canada (2009). "Difference between Canadian Provinces and Territories". Queen's Printer for Canada. http://www.pco-bcp.gc.ca/aia/index.asp?lang=eng&page=provterr&sub=difference&doc=difference-eng.htm. Retrieved September 19, 2009. </ref><ref>Legislative Assembly of the Northwest Territories (2008). "A Comparison of Provincial & Territorial Governments". Queen's Printer for Canada. http://www.assembly.gov.nt.ca/_live/pages/wpPages/factscomparisonofprovincialandterritorial.aspx. Retrieved March 10, 2010. </ref>

[edit] Law

Main article: Law of Canada

[edit] Foreign relations and military

Main articles: Foreign relations of Canada and Canadian Forces

[edit] Provinces and territories

Main article: Provinces and territories of Canada

[edit] Economy

Main article: Economy of Canada

File:Canadian bills2.jpg

Current Canadian banknotes, depicting (top to bottom) Wilfrid Laurier, John A. Macdonald, Queen of Canada (Queen Elizabeth II), William Lyon Mackenzie King, and Robert Borden

Canada is one of the world's wealthiest nations, with a high per-capita income, and it is a member of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) and the G8. It is one of the world's top ten trading nations.<ref>"Latest release". World Trade Organization. 2008-04-17. http://www.wto.org/english/news_e/pres08_e/pr520_e.htm. Retrieved 2008-07-03. </ref> Canada is a mixed market, ranking above the U.S. on the Heritage Foundation's index of economic freedom and higher than most western European nations.<ref>"Index of Economic Freedom". The Heritage Foundation and the Wall Street Journal. 2009. http://www.heritage.org/Index/. Retrieved 2009-01-09. </ref> The largest foreign importers of Canadian goods are the United States, the United Kingdom, and Japan.<ref name="import-export">"Imports, exports and trade balance of goods on a balance-of-payments basis, by country or country grouping". Statistics Canada. 2009-11-16. http://www40.statcan.gc.ca/l01/cst01/gblec02a-eng.htm. Retrieved 2010-01-17. </ref> In 2008, Canada's imported goods were worth over $442.9 billion, of which $280.8 billion was from the United States, $11.7 billion from Japan, and $11.3 billion from the United Kingdom.<ref name="import-export" /> The country’s 2009 trade deficit totaled C$4.8 billion, compared with a C$46.9 billion surplus in 2008.<ref>"Canada has first yearly trade deficit since 1975". The Globe and Mail. February 10, 2010.</ref>

As of October 2009, Canada's national unemployment rate was 8.6%. Provincial unemployment rates vary from a low of 5.8% in Manitoba to a high of 17% in Newfoundland and Labrador.<ref>"Latest release from Labour Force Survey". Statistics Canada. 2009-11-06. http://www.statcan.gc.ca/subjects-sujets/labour-travail/lfs-epa/lfs-epa-eng.htm. Retrieved 2009-11-18. </ref> Between October 2008, and October 2010, the Canadian labour market lost 162,000 full-time jobs and a total of 224,000 permanent jobs.<ref>"The real state of Canada's jobs market". The Globe and Mail. 2010-10-15. http://www.theglobeandmail.com/report-on-business/economy/economy-lab/the-economists/the-real-state-of-canadas-jobs-market/article1757129/. Retrieved 2010-12-12. </ref> Canada's federal debt is estimated to be $566.7 billion for 2010–11, up from $463.7 billion in 2008–09.<ref>"Budget fights deficit with freeze on future spending". CTV News. March 4, 2010.</ref> Canada’s net foreign debt rose by $40.6-billion to $193.8-billion in the first quarter of 2010.<ref>"Canada’s foreign debt climbs $41-billion". Financial Post. June 17, 2010.</ref> The combined federal and provincial government deficit in the 2009–10 fiscal year could reach of $100-billion,<ref>"Why foreign investors can't get enough of our debt". Financial Post. January 17, 2010.</ref> and the federal deficit is forecast to be C$49.2 billion in 2010–11.<ref>"Canada budget tackles deficit, averts election". Reuters. March 4, 2010.</ref>

In the past century, the growth of the manufacturing, mining, and service sectors has transformed the nation from a largely rural economy to a more industrial and urban one. Like other First World nations, the Canadian economy is dominated by the service industry, which employs about three quarters of Canadians.<ref>"Employment by Industry". Statistics Canada. 2009-01-08. http://www40.statcan.gc.ca/l01/cst01/econ40-eng.htm. Retrieved 2009-10-19. </ref> Canada is unusual among developed countries in the importance of its primary sector, in which the logging and petroleum industries are two of the most important.<ref>Easterbrook, WT (March 1995). "Recent Contributions to Economic History: Canada". Journal of Economic History (Economic History Society) 19: 98. </ref>

Canada is one of the few developed nations that are net exporters of energy.<ref name="energy">Brown, Charles E (2002). World energy resources. Springer. pp. 323, 378–389. ISBN 3540426345. http://books.google.ca/books?id=WLC7CdLOZosC&lpg=PP1&dq=World%20energy%20resources&pg=PA323#v=onepage&q&f=true. Retrieved 2011-01-14. </ref> Atlantic Canada has vast offshore deposits of natural gas, and Alberta has large oil and gas resources. The immense Athabasca Oil Sands give Canada the world's second-largest oil reserves, behind Saudi Arabia.<ref>Clarke, Tony; Campbell, Bruce; Laxer, Gordon (2006-03-10). "US oil addiction could make us sick". Parkland Institute. http://parklandinstitute.ca/downloads/reports/FuellingFortressAmericareport.pdf. Retrieved 2006-05-18. </ref>

Canada is one of the world's largest suppliers of agricultural products; the Canadian Prairies are one of the most important producers of wheat, canola, and other grains.<ref name="britton">Britton, John NH (1996). Canada and the Global Economy: The Geography of Structural and Technological Change. McGill-Queen's University Press. pp. 26–27, 155–163. ISBN 0773513566. http://books.google.ca/books?id=mmm5JH-jP78C&lpg=PP1&dq=Canada%20and%20the%20Global%20Economy%3A%20The%20Geography%20of%20Structural%20and%20Technological%20Change&pg=PA26#v=onepage&q&f=true. Retrieved 2011-01-14. </ref> Canada is the largest producer of zinc and uranium, and is a global source of many other natural resources, such as gold, nickel, aluminium, and lead.<ref name="energy"/> Many towns in northern Canada, where agriculture is difficult, are sustainable because of nearby mines or sources of timber. Canada also has a sizable manufacturing sector centred in southern Ontario and Quebec, with automobiles and aeronautics representing particularly important industries.<ref>Leacy, FH (ed.) (1983). "Vl-12". Statistics Canada. http://www.statcan.gc.ca/pub/11-516-x/sectionv/4057758-eng.htm#V332_350. Retrieved 2010-01-18. </ref>

File:Nafta.jpg

Representatives of the governments of Canada, Mexico, and the United States sign the North American Free Trade Agreement in 1992

Economic integration with the United States has increased significantly since World War II. This has drawn the attention of Canadian nationalists, who are concerned about cultural and economic autonomy in an age of globalization, as American goods and media products have become ubiquitous.<ref>Granatstein, JL (1997). Yankee Go Home: Canadians and Anti-Americanism. Toronto: HarperCollins. ISBN 0-00-638541-9. </ref> The Automotive Products Trade Agreement of 1965 opened the borders to trade in the auto manufacturing industry. In the 1970s, concerns over energy self-sufficiency and foreign ownership in the manufacturing sectors prompted Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau's Liberal government to enact the National Energy Program (NEP) and the Foreign Investment Review Agency (FIRA).<ref>Morck, Randall; Tian, Gloria; Yeung, Bernard (2005). "Who owns whom? Economic nationalism and family controlled pyramidal groups in Canada". In Lorraine Eden, Wendy Dobson. Governance, multinationals, and growth. Edward Elgar Publishing. p. 50. ISBN 1843769093. http://books.google.ca/books?id=q4gt2xhqpSIC&lpg=PA44&dq=Who%20owns%20whom%3F%20Economic%20nationalism%20and%20family%20controlled%20pyramidal%20groups%20in%20Canada&pg=PA50#v=onepage&q&f=true. Retrieved 2011-01-14. </ref>

In the 1980s, Prime Minister Brian Mulroney's Progressive Conservatives abolished the NEP and changed the name of FIRA to "Investment Canada" in order to encourage foreign investment.<ref>Jenkins, Barbara L (1992). The paradox of continental production. Cornell University Press. p. 117. ISBN 0801426766. </ref> The Canada – United States Free Trade Agreement (FTA) of 1988 eliminated tariffs between the two countries, while the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) expanded the free-trade zone to include Mexico in the 1990s.<ref name="britton"/> In the mid-1990s, the Liberal government under Jean Chrétien began to post annual budgetary surpluses and steadily paid down the national debt.<ref>"Jean Chrétien". CBC. 2009-07-13. http://www.cbc.ca/canada/story/2009/07/13/f-jean-chretien.html. Retrieved 2009-10-20. </ref> The 2008 global financial crisis caused a recession, which could increase the country's unemployment rate to 10%.<ref>Sturgeon, Jamie (2009-03-13). "Jobless rate to peak at 10%: TD". National Post. http://www.nationalpost.com/related/topics/story.html?id=1383376. Retrieved 2009-10-20. </ref>

[edit] Science and technology

File:STS-116 Payload (NASA S116-E-05364).jpg

The Canadarm in action on the Space Shuttle Discovery during STS-116

Main article: Scientific research in Canada

Canada is an industrial nation with a highly developed science and technology sector. Nearly 1.88% of Canada's GDP is allocated to research & development (R&D).<ref>"Gross domestic expenditures on research and development". Statistics Canada. http://www.statcan.gc.ca/pub/88-221-x/2008002/part-partie1-eng.htm. Retrieved 2009-01-22. </ref> The country has eighteen Nobel laureates in physics, chemistry and medicine.<ref>"Nobel Prize Winners Canada". Altius Directory. http://www.altiusdirectory.com/Society/nobel-prize-winners-canada.html. Retrieved 2010-01-18. </ref> Canada ranks 12 in the world for Internet usage with 28.0 million users, 84.3% of the total population.<ref>"Internet Usage and Population in North America". Internet world stats. http://www.internetworldstats.com/stats14.htm#north. Retrieved 2009-08-18. </ref>

The Defence Research and Development Canada is an agency of the Department of National Defence ,whose purpose is to respond to the scientific and technological needs of the Canadian Forces. Over the years, DRDC have been responsible for numerous innovations and inventions of practical application both in civilian and military world. It has also contributed in the development of the most advanced Active Electronically Scanned Array in the world as part of an international effort involving Canada, Germany, and the Netherlands.<ref>"ACTIVE PHASED ARRAY RADAR (APAR)". Thales-systems Canada. http://www.thales-systems.ca/projects/apar/apar.pdf. Retrieved 2005-02-12. </ref>

File:Northern Light Lander Mars1.jpg

Artist's impression of Canadian Northern Light Lander on the surface of Mars with robotic arm deployed to search for evidence of photosynthetic life.

The Canadian Space Agency conducts space, planetary, and aviation research, as well as develops rockets and satellites. In 1984, Marc Garneau became Canada's first astronaut, serving as payload specialist of STS-41-G. Canada was ranked third among 20 top countries in space sciences.<ref>"Top countries in space sciences". Thomson Reuters Agency. http://www.timeshighereducation.co.uk/story.asp?sectioncode=26&storycode=408577&c=1. Retrieved 2009-10-08. </ref> Canada is a participant in the International Space Station and one of the world's pioneers in space robotics with the Canadarm, Canadarm2 and Dextre. Since the 1960s, Canada Aerospace Industries have designed and built 10 satellites, including RADARSAT-1, RADARSAT-2 and MOST.<ref>"The Canadian Aerospace Industry praises the federal government for recognizing Space as a strategic capability for Canada". newswire. http://www.newswire.ca/en/releases/archive/March2010/11/c9200.html. Retrieved 2010-03-11. </ref> Canada also produced one of the most successful sounding rockets, the Black Brant; over 1000 have been launched since they were initially produced in 1961.<ref>"Black Brant Sounding Rockets". Magellan Aerospace. http://www.bristol.ca/BlackBrant.html. Retrieved 2008-03-11. </ref> Universities across Canada are working on the first domestic landing spacecraft: the Northern Light, designed to search for life on Mars and investigate Martian electromagnetic radiation environment and atmospheric properties. If the Northern Light is successful, Canada will be the third country to land on another planet.<ref>"Canada on Mars?". marketwire. http://www.marketwire.com/press-release/Canada-on-Mars-1022306.htm. Retrieved 2009-07-27. </ref>

[edit] Demographics

Main article: Demographics of Canada

Historical populations
Year	Pop.	%±<tr>	1851	2,415,000 <td style="text-align: center; padding: 1px; ">—</td> </tr><tr>	1861	3,174,000 <td style="text-align: right; padding: 1px; ">31.4%</td> </tr><tr>	1871	3,689,000 <td style="text-align: right; padding: 1px; ">16.2%</td> </tr><tr>	1881	4,325,000 <td style="text-align: right; padding: 1px; ">17.2%</td> </tr><tr>	1891	4,833,000 <td style="text-align: right; padding: 1px; border-bottom: 1px solid #bbbbbb;">11.7%</td> </tr><tr>	1901	5,371,000 <td style="text-align: right; padding: 1px; ">11.1%</td> </tr><tr>	1911	7,207,000 <td style="text-align: right; padding: 1px; ">34.2%</td> </tr><tr>	1921	8,788,000 <td style="text-align: right; padding: 1px; ">21.9%</td> </tr><tr>	1931	10,377,000 <td style="text-align: right; padding: 1px; ">18.1%</td> </tr><tr>	1941	11,507,000 <td style="text-align: right; padding: 1px; border-bottom: 1px solid #bbbbbb;">10.9%</td> </tr><tr>	1951	14,009,000 <td style="text-align: right; padding: 1px; ">21.7%</td> </tr><tr>	1961	18,238,000 <td style="text-align: right; padding: 1px; ">30.2%</td> </tr><tr>	1971	21,962,000 <td style="text-align: right; padding: 1px; ">20.4%</td> </tr><tr>	1981	24,820,000 <td style="text-align: right; padding: 1px; ">13.0%</td> </tr><tr>	1991	28,031,000 <td style="text-align: right; padding: 1px; border-bottom: 1px solid #bbbbbb;">12.9%</td> </tr><tr>	2001	31,021,000 <td style="text-align: right; padding: 1px; ">10.7%</td> </tr><tr>	2010 est.	34,851,000 <td style="text-align: right; padding: 1px; ">12.3%</td> </tr><tr><td colspan="3" style="border-top: 1px solid black; font-size: 85%; text-align: left;">Source: Statistics Canada<ref name=popchart>"Estimated population of Canada, 1605 to present". Statistics Canada. 2009. http://www.statcan.gc.ca/pub/98-187-x/4151287-eng.htm. Retrieved 2010-04-16. </ref></td></tr>

Canada's 2006 census counted a total population of 31,612,897, an increase of 5.4% since 2001.<ref>Beauchesne, Eric (2007-03-13). "We are 31,612,897". National Post. http://www.canada.com/nationalpost/financialpost/story.html?id=73b94aac-08f0-477f-a72a-b8b640f6658f&k=90795. Retrieved 2007-03-13. </ref> Population growth is from immigration and, to a lesser extent, natural growth. About four-fifths of Canada's population lives within 150 kilometres (93 mi) of the United States border.<ref>Custred, Glynn (2008). "Security Threats on America's Borders". In Alexander Moens. Immigration policy and the terrorist threat in Canada and the United States. Fraser Institute. p. 96. ISBN 0889752354. http://books.google.ca/books?id=HmiqBgnkAXYC&lpg=PP1&dq=Immigration%20policy%20and%20the%20terrorist%20threat%20in%20Canada%20and%20the%20United%20States&pg=PA96#v=onepage&q&f=true. Retrieved 2011-01-14. </ref> A similar proportion live in urban areas concentrated in the Quebec City – Windsor Corridor (notably the Greater Golden Horseshoe, including Toronto and area, Montreal, and Ottawa), the BC Lower Mainland (consisting of the region surrounding Vancouver), and the Calgary–Edmonton Corridor in Alberta.<ref>"Urban-rural population as a proportion of total population, Canada, provinces, territories and health regions". Statistics Canada. 2001. http://www.statcan.gc.ca/pub/82-221-x/00503/t/th/4062283-eng.htm. Retrieved 2009-04-23. </ref>

According to the 2006 census, the largest self-reported ethnic origin is Canadian (32%), followed by English (21%), French (15.8%), Scottish (15.1%), Irish (13.9%), German (10.2%), Italian (4.6%), Chinese (4.3%), North American Indian (4.0%), Ukrainian (3.9%), and Dutch (Netherlands) (3.3%).<ref>"Ethnocultural Portrait of Canada – Data table". Statistics Canada. 2009-07-28. http://www12.statcan.ca/census-recensement/2006/dp-pd/hlt/97-562/pages/page.cfm?Lang=E&Geo=PR&Code=01&Data=Count&Table=2&StartRec=1&Sort=3&Display=All&CSDFilter=5000. Retrieved 2010-12-03. </ref> There are 600 recognized First Nations governments or bands encompassing 1,172,790 people.<ref name="Aboriginal Identity 2006 Census">"Aboriginal Identity (8), Sex (3) and Age Groups (12) for the Population of Canada, Provinces, Territories, Census Metropolitan Areas and Census Agglomerations, 2006 Census – 20% Sample Data". Census > 2006 Census: Data products > Topic-based tabulations >. Statistics Canada, Government of Canada. 2008-06-12. http://www12.statcan.ca/english/census06/data/topics/RetrieveProductTable.cfm?ALEVEL=3&APATH=3&CATNO=&DETAIL=0&DIM=&DS=99&FL=0&FREE=0&GAL=0&GC=99&GK=NA&GRP=1&IPS=&METH=0&ORDER=1&PID=89122&PTYPE=88971&RL=0&S=1&ShowAll=No&StartRow=1&SUB=0&Temporal=2006&Theme=73&VID=0&VNAMEE=&VNAMEF=&GID=837928. Retrieved 2009-09-18. </ref>

Canada's Aboriginal population is growing at almost twice the national rate, and 3.8% of Canada's population claimed aboriginal identity in 2006. Another 16.2% of the population belonged to non-aboriginal visible minorities.<ref>"One in 6 Canadians is a visible minority". CBC. 2008-04-02. http://www.cbc.ca/canada/story/2008/04/02/stats-immigration.html. Retrieved 2009-10-20. </ref> The largest visible minority groups in Canada are South Asian (4%), Chinese (3.9%) and Black (2.5%).<ref name="mode">"2006 Census: Ethnic origin, visible minorities, place of work and mode of transportation". The Daily. Statistics Canada. 2008-04-02. http://www.statcan.gc.ca/daily-quotidien/080402/dq080402a-eng.htm. Retrieved 2010-01-19. </ref> In 1961, less than 2% of Canada's population (about 300,000 people) could be classified as belonging to a visible minority group and less than 1% as aboriginal.<ref>Pendakur, Krishna. "Visible Minorities and Aboriginal Peoples in Vancouver's Labour Market". Simon Fraser University. http://www.rhdcc-hrsdc.gc.ca/eng/labour/equality/racism/racism_free_init/pendakur.shtml. Retrieved 2010-01-18. </ref> In 2006, 51.0% of Vancouver's population and 46.9% of Toronto's population were members of visible minority groups.<ref>"Vancouver". Statistics Canada. 2009-07-24. Archived from the original on 2010-01-05. http://www.webcitation.org/5mYLpwp8q. Retrieved 2009-10-20. </ref><ref>"Toronto". Statistics Canada. 2009-07-24. Archived from the original on 2010-01-05. http://www.webcitation.org/5mYLsULRm. Retrieved 2009-10-20. </ref> Between 2001 and 2006, the visible minority population rose by 27.2%.<ref name="mode"/> According to a 2005 forecast by Statistics Canada, the proportion of Canadians belonging to a visible minority group in Canada could reach as much as 23% by 2017. As of 2007, almost one in five Canadians (19.8%) were foreign-born.<ref name = "statcan-Census">"The Daily, Tuesday, December 4, 2007. 2006 Census: Immigration, citizenship, language, mobility and migration". Statistics Canada. 2007-12-04. http://www.statcan.gc.ca/daily-quotidien/071204/dq071204a-eng.htm. Retrieved 2009-10-19. </ref> Nearly 60% of new immigrants hail from Asia (including the Middle East).<ref name = "statcan-Census"/> In 2009, close to one-third of all new immigrants to Canada came from just three countries – China, Philippines and India.<ref>Lilley, Brian (2010). "Canadians want immigration shakeup". Parliamentary Bureau. Canadian Online Explorer. http://cnews.canoe.ca/CNEWS/Politics/2010/11/09/16054896.html. Retrieved 2010-11-14. </ref> By 2031, one in three Canadians could belong to a visible minority group.<ref>"The changing face of Canada: booming minority populations by 2031" (Subscription required). The Globe and Mail. March 9, 2010. http://www.theglobeandmail.com/news/national/the-changing-face-of-canada-booming-minority-populations-by-2031/article1494651/. Retrieved 2010-11-13. </ref>

Religion in Canada (2001 Census)<ref name="religion"/>
Religion			Percent
Catholic			43.6%
Protestant			29.2%
No affiliation			16.5%
Christian (other)			2.6%
Muslim			2.0%
Christian Orthodox			1.5%
Jewish			1.1%
Buddhist			1.0%
Hindu			1.0%
Sikh			0.9%

Canada has the highest per-capita immigration rate in the world, driven by economic policy and family reunification, and is aiming for between 240,000 and 265,000 new permanent residents in 2011, the same number of immigrants as in recent years.<ref>"Canada's 2011 immigration level unchanged". CBC.ca. 2010-11-02. http://www.cbc.ca/canada/montreal/story/2010/11/02/con-immigration.html. Retrieved 2010-12-12. </ref> New immigrants settle mostly in major urban areas like Toronto and Vancouver.<ref>"When immigration goes awry". Toronto Star. 2006-07-14. http://www.thestar.com/Canada2020/article/106702. Retrieved 2010-01-08. </ref> Canada also accepts large numbers of refugees.<ref>"Government of Canada Tables 2011 Immigration Plan". Canada News Centre. http://www.cic.gc.ca/english/department/media/releases/2010/2010-11-01a.asp. Retrieved 2010-12-12. </ref> The country resettles over one in 10 of the world’s refugees.<ref>"Canada's Generous Program for Refugee Resettlement Is Undermined by Human Smugglers Who Abuse Canada's Immigration System". Public Safety Canada. http://www.publicsafety.gc.ca/media/nr/2010/nr20101021-6-eng.aspx. Retrieved 2010-12-12. </ref>

In common with many other developed countries, Canada is experiencing a demographic shift towards an older population, with more retirees and fewer people of working age. In 2006, the average age of the population was 39.5 years.<ref>Martel, Laurent; Malenfant, Éric Caron (2009-09-22). "2006 Census: Portrait of the Canadian Population in 2006, by Age and Sex". Statistics Canada. http://www12.statcan.ca/census-recensement/2006/as-sa/97-551/index-eng.cfm?CFID=3347169&CFTOKEN=19485112. Retrieved 2009-10-18. </ref> The census results also indicate that despite an increase in immigration since 2001 (which gave Canada a higher rate of population growth than in the previous intercensal period), the aging of Canada's population did not slow during the period.

Support for religious pluralism is an important part of Canada's political culture. According to the 2001 census, 77.1% of Canadians identify as being Christians; of this, Catholics make up the largest group (43.6% of Canadians).<ref name="religion">"Population by religion, by province and territory (2001 Census)". Statistics Canada. 2005-01-25. http://www40.statcan.gc.ca/l01/cst01/demo30a-eng.htm. Retrieved 2010-01-19. </ref> The largest Protestant denomination is the United Church of Canada (9.5% of Canadians), followed by the Anglicans (6.8%), Baptists (2.4%), Lutherans (2%), and other Christians (4.4%).<ref name="religion"/> About 16.5% of Canadians declare no religious affiliation, and the remaining 6.3% are affiliated with non-Christian religions, the largest of which is Islam (2.0%), followed by Judaism (1.1%).<ref name="religion"/>

[edit] Education

Canadian provinces and territories are responsible for education. Each system is similar, while reflecting regional history, culture and geography.<ref name="education">"Overview of Education in Canada". Council of Ministers of Education, Canada. http://www.educationau-incanada.ca/index.aspx?action=educationsystem-systemeeducation&lang=eng. Retrieved 2009-10-20. </ref> The mandatory school age ranges between 5–7 to 16–18 years,<ref name="education" /> contributing to an adult literacy rate of 99%.<ref name="cia" /> Post-secondary education is also administered by provincial and territorial governments, which provide most of the funding; the federal government administers additional research grants, student loans, and scholarships. In 2002, 43% of Canadians aged 25 to 64 possessed a post-secondary education; for those aged 25 to 34, the rate of post-secondary education reached 51%.<ref>"Creating Opportunities for All Canadians". Department of Finance Canada. 2005-11-14. http://www.fin.gc.ca/ec2005/agenda/agc4-eng.asp. Retrieved 2006-05-22. </ref>

[edit] Urbanization

[edit] Language

Main article: Spoken languages of Canada

Canada's two official languages are English and French. Official bilingualism is defined in the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms, the Official Languages Act, and Official Language Regulations; it is applied by the Commissioner of Official Languages. English and French have equal status in federal courts, Parliament, and in all federal institutions. Citizens have the right, where there is sufficient demand, to receive federal government services in either English or French, and official-language minorities are guaranteed their own schools in all provinces and territories.<ref>"Official Languages in Canada: Federal Policy". Library of Parliament. 2009-06-30. http://www2.parl.gc.ca/Content/LOP/ResearchPublications/prb0844-e.htm. Retrieved 2010-03-26. </ref>

File:QuebecCitySum04.jpg

Notre-Dame-des-Victoires in the historic Basse-Ville (Lower Town) of Quebec City, Quebec. The population is mainly French-speaking, with a small English-speaking minority.

English and French are the mother tongues of 59.7% and 23.2% of the population respectively,<ref name="statcan language">"Population by mother tongue, by province and territory". Statistics Canada. 2005-01-27. http://www40.statcan.gc.ca/l01/cst01/demo11a-eng.htm. Retrieved 2010-01-19. </ref> and the languages most spoken at home by 68.3% and 22.3% of the population respectively.<ref>"First Official Language Spoken (7) and Sex (3) for Population, for Canada, Provinces, Territories and Census Metropolitan Areas 1, 2001 Census – 20% Sample Data". Statistics Canada, 2001 Census of Population. http://www12.statcan.ca/english/census01/products/standard/themes/RetrieveProductTable.cfm?Temporal=2001&PID=55535&APATH=3&GID=431515&METH=1&PTYPE=55440&THEME=41&FOCUS=0&AID=0&PLACENAME=0&PROVINCE=0&SEARCH=0&GC=0&GK=0&VID=0&VNAMEE=&VNAMEF=&FL=0&RL=0&FREE=0. Retrieved 2007-03-23. </ref> 98.5% of Canadians speak English or French (67.5% speak English only, 13.3% speak French only, and 17.7% speak both).<ref name="statcan_language2">"Population by knowledge of official language, by province and territory". Statistics Canada. 2005-01-27. http://www40.statcan.ca/l01/cst01/demo15-eng.htm. Retrieved 2009-10-20. </ref> English and French Official Language Communities, defined by First Official Language Spoken, constitute 73.0% and 23.6% of the population respectively.<ref name="statcan_language2"/>

The Charter of the French Language makes French the official language in Quebec.<ref name="Daoust">Daoust, Denise (1990). "A Decade of Language Planning in Quebec: A Sociopolitical Overview". In Brian Weinstein. Language Policy and Political Development. Ablex Publishing Corporation. p. 108. ISBN 0893916110. http://books.google.ca/books?id=yrxjUJcgkHUC&lpg=PA108&dq=A%20Decade%20of%20Language%20Planning%20in%20Quebec&pg=PA108#v=onepage&q&f=true. Retrieved 2011-01-14. </ref> Although more than 85% of French-speaking Canadians live in Quebec, there are substantial Francophone populations in Ontario, Alberta, and southern Manitoba; Ontario has the largest French-speaking population outside Quebec.<ref>Lachapelle, R (March 2009). "The Diversity of the Canadian Francophonie". Statistics Canada. http://www.statcan.gc.ca/about-apercu/diversity-franco-diversite-eng.htm. Retrieved 2009-09-24. </ref> New Brunswick, the only officially bilingual province, has a French-speaking Acadian minority constituting 33% of the population. There are also clusters of Acadians in southwestern Nova Scotia, on Cape Breton Island, and through central and western Prince Edward Island.<ref>Hayday, Matthew (2005). Bilingual Today, United Tomorrow: Official Languages in Education and Canadian Federalism. McGill-Queen's University Press. p. 49. ISBN 0773529608. http://books.google.ca/books?id=3D6LPBGT59kC&lpg=PP1&dq=Bilingual%20Today%2C%20United%20Tomorrow%3A%20Official%20Languages%20in%20Education%20and%20Canadian%20Federalism.&pg=PA49#v=onepage&q&f=true. Retrieved 2011-01-14. </ref>

Other provinces have no official languages as such, but French is used as a language of instruction, in courts, and for other government services in addition to English. Manitoba, Ontario, and Quebec allow for both English and French to be spoken in the provincial legislatures, and laws are enacted in both languages. In Ontario, French has some legal status but is not fully co-official.<ref>Arnopoulos, Sheila McLeod (1982). Voices from French Ontario. McGill-Queen's University Press. pp. 77–81. ISBN 0773504060. </ref> There are 11 Aboriginal language groups, made up of more than 65 distinct dialects.<ref>"Aboriginal languages". Statistics Canada. http://www.statcan.gc.ca/pub/89-589-x/4067801-eng.htm. Retrieved 2009-10-05. </ref> Of these, only Cree, Inuktitut and Ojibway have a large enough population of fluent speakers to be considered viable to survive in the long term.<ref name="online">Gordon, Raymond G Jr. (2005) (Web Version online by SIL International,formerly known as the Summer Institute of Linguistics). Ethnologue: Languages of the world (15 ed.). Dallas, TX: SIL International. ISBN 1-55671-159-X. http://www.ethnologue.com/web.asp. Retrieved 2009-10-06 </ref> Several aboriginal languages have official status in the Northwest Territories.<ref>Fettes, Mark; Norton, Ruth (2001). "Voices of Winter: Aboriginal Languages and Public Policy in Canada". In Marlene Brant Castellano, Lynne Davis, Louise Lahache. Aboriginal education: fulfilling the promise. UBC Press. p. 39. ISBN 0774807830. </ref> Inuktitut is the majority language in Nunavut, and one of three official languages in the territory.<ref>Russell, Peter H (2005). "Indigineous Self-Determination: Is Canada as Good as it Gets?". In Barbara Hocking. Unfinished constitutional business?: rethinking indigenous self-determination. Aboriginal Studies Press. p. 180. ISBN 0855754664. http://books.google.ca/books?id=mxreMX_cf4EC&lpg=PP1&dq=Unfinished%20constitutional%20business&pg=PA180#v=onepage&q&f=true. Retrieved 2011-01-14. </ref>

Over six million people in Canada list a non-official language as their mother tongue. Some of the most common non-official first languages include Chinese (mainly Cantonese; 1,012,065 first-language speakers), Italian (455,040), German (450,570), Punjabi (367,505) and Spanish (345,345).<ref name="statcan language"/>

[edit] Culture

Main article: Culture of Canada

File:Raven-and-the-first-men.jpg

Bill Reid's sculpture Raven and The First Men, showing part of a Haida creation myth. The Raven is a figure common to many mythologies in aboriginal culture.

Canadian culture has historically been influenced by British, French, and aboriginal cultures and traditions. There are distinctive Aboriginal cultures, languages, art, and music spread across Canada.<ref name="one">"Assembly of First Nations - Assembly of First Nations-The Story". Assembly of First Nations. Archived from the original on 2008-07-11. http://web.archive.org/web/20080711230527/http://www.afn.ca/article.asp?id=59. Retrieved 2009-10-02. </ref><ref name="three">"Civilization.ca-Gateway to Aboriginal Heritage-object". Canadian Museum of Civilization Corporation. May 12, 2006. http://www.civilization.ca/cmc/exhibitions/tresors/ethno/etb0000e.shtml. Retrieved 2009-10-02. </ref> Many North American Indigenous words, inventions and games have become an everyday part of Canadian language and use. The canoe, snowshoes, the toboggan, lacrosse, tug of war, maple syrup and tobacco are examples of products, inventions and games.<ref>"Diverse Peoples – Aboriginal Contributions and Inventions" (PDF). The Government of Manitoba. http://www.edu.gov.mb.ca/k12/cur/socstud/foundation_gr2/blms/2-2-1c.pdf. Retrieved 2009-10-17. </ref> Some of the words include the barbecue, caribou, chipmunk, woodchuck, hammock, skunk, mahogany, hurricane and moose.<ref name=Edinburgh>Newhouse, David. "Hidden in Plain Sight Aboriginal Contributions to Canada and Canadian Identity Creating a new Indian Problem" (PDF). Centre of Canadian Studies, University of Edinburgh. http://www.cst.ed.ac.uk/2005conference/papers/Newhouse_paper.pdf. Retrieved 2009-10-17. </ref> Numerous areas, towns, cities and rivers of the Americas have names of Indigenous origin. The province of Saskatchewan derives its name from the Cree language name of the Saskatchewan River, "Kisiskatchewani Sipi".<ref name=places/> Canada's capital city Ottawa comes from the Algonquin language term "adawe" meaning "to trade."<ref name=places>"Aboriginal place names contribute to a rich tapestry". Indian and Northern Affairs Canada. http://www.ainc-inac.gc.ca/ai/mr/is/info106-eng.asp. Retrieved 2009-10-17. </ref> National Aboriginal Day recognises the cultures and contributions of Aboriginal peoples of Canada.<ref name=history>"National Aboriginal Day History" (PDF). Indian and Northern Affairs Canada. http://dsp-psd.pwgsc.gc.ca/Collection/R32-179-2000E.pdf. Retrieved 2009-10-18. </ref>

Canadian culture has been greatly influenced by immigration from all over the world. Many Canadians value multiculturalism and see Canada as being inherently multicultural.<ref name="bickerton" /> However, the country's culture has been heavily influenced by American culture because of its proximity and the high rate of migration between the two countries. The great majority of English-speaking immigrants to Canada between 1755 and 1815 were Americans from the Thirteen Colonies; during and immediately after the American Revolutionary War, 46,000 Americans loyal to the British crown came to Canada.<ref>Will Kaufman, Heidi Slettedahl MacPherson, ed (2005). "Settlement Policies". Britain and the Americas: culture, politics, and history. ABC-CLIO. p. 888. ISBN 1851094318. http://books.google.ca/books?id=HbBbn3x7PZsC&lpg=PP2&dq=Britain%20and%20the%20Americas%3A%20culture%2C%20politics%2C%20and%20history&pg=PA888#v=onepage&q&f=true. Retrieved 2011-01-14. </ref> Between 1785 and 1812, more Americans emigrated to Canada in response to promises of land.<ref>Dollinger, Stefan (2008). New-dialect formation in Canada: evidence from the English modal auxiliaries. John Benjamins. p. 66. ISBN 9027231087. http://books.google.ca/books?id=eeCw_-fFAMIC&lpg=PP1&dq=New-dialect%20formation%20in%20Canada%3A%20evidence%20from%20the%20English%20modal%20auxiliaries&pg=PA66#v=onepage&q&f=true. Retrieved 2011-01-14. </ref>

American media and entertainment are popular, if not dominant, in English Canada; conversely, many Canadian cultural products and entertainers are successful in the United States and worldwide.<ref>Blackwell, John D (2005). "Culture High and Low". International Council for Canadian Studies World Wide Web Service. http://www.iccs-ciec.ca/blackwell.html#culture. Retrieved 2006-03-15. </ref> Many cultural products are marketed toward a unified "North American" or global market. The creation and preservation of distinctly Canadian culture are supported by federal government programs, laws, and institutions such as the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation (CBC), the National Film Board of Canada, and the Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission.<ref>"Mandate of the National Film Board" (PDF). National Film Board of Canada. 2005. http://www.onf.ca/medias/download/documents/pdf/NFB_STRATEGIC_PLAN.pdf. Retrieved 2009-10-20. </ref> It is often asserted that Canadian Government policies such as publicly-funded health care, higher taxation to distribute wealth, outlawing capital punishment, strong efforts to eliminate poverty in Canada, an emphasis on multiculturalism, imposing strict gun control, leniency in regard to drug use and most recently legalizing same-sex marriage are social indicators of how Canada's politically and culturally evolution differ from that of the United States.<ref> Bricker, Darrell; Wright, John (2005). What Canadians think-- about almost-- everything. Doubleday Canada,. pp. 8-23. ISBN 0385659857. http://books.google.ca/books?id=oCWHHfJhUvEC&lpg=PA1&dq=Canadians&pg=PT16#v=onepage&q&f=true. Retrieved 2011-15-01. </ref>

[edit] Art

Main article: Canadian Art

File:Jackpine.jpeg

The Jack Pine, by Tom Thomson, 1916; oil on canvas, in the collection of the National Gallery of Canada

Canadian visual art has been dominated by Tom Thomson — Canada's most famous painter — and by the Group of Seven. Thomson's brief career painting Canadian landscapes spanned just a decade up to his death in 1917 at age 39.<ref name="Silcox">Silcox, David P. (1977). "Tom Thomson's life". In Harold Town and David P. Silcox. Tom Thomson: the silence and the storm. Toronto: McClelland & Stewart. pp. 49–59. ISBN 077108482X. </ref> The Group were painters with a nationalistic and idealistic focus, who first exhibited their distinctive works in May 1920. Though referred to as having seven members, five artists — Lawren Harris, A. Y. Jackson, Arthur Lismer, J. E. H. MacDonald, and Frederick Varley — were responsible for articulating the Group's ideas. They were joined briefly by Frank Johnston, and by commercial artist Franklin Carmichael. A. J. Casson became part of the Group in 1926.<ref name="Hill">Hill, Charles C. (1995). The Group of Seven – Art for a Nation. Ottawa: National Gallery of Canada. pp. 15–21, 195. ISBN 077106716X. </ref> Associated with the Group was another prominent Canadian artist, Emily Carr, known for her landscapes and portrayals of the indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest Coast.<ref name="Newlands">Newlands, Anne (1996). Emily Carr. Willowdale, Ontario: Firefly Books. pp. 8–9. ISBN 1552090469. </ref>

[edit] Music

Main article: Music of Canada

Canada has developed a music infrastructure and industry, with broadcasting regulated by the Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission.<ref name="Gar" >Carl Morey (1997). Music in Canada: A Research and Information Guide. New York Garland Publishing. p. 223. ISBN 9780815316039. http://books.google.com/books?id=eZQch8ieRtsC&lpg=PP1&dq=Music%20in%20Canada%3A%20A%20Research%20and%20Information%20Guide%2C&pg=PA223#v=onepage&q&f=true. Retrieved 2011-14-01. </ref><ref>The Canadian Communications Foundation. "The history of broadcasting in Canada". http://www.broadcasting-history.ca/timeline/CCFTimeline.html. Retrieved 2009-10-28. </ref> The Canadian music industry has produced internationally renowned composers, musicians and ensembles, such as Portia White, Guy Lombardo, Murray Adaskin, Rush, Joni Mitchell and Neil Young. Canadian winners of multiple Grammy Awards have included Celine Dion, k.d. lang, Sarah McLachlan, Alanis Morissette and Shania Twain. The Canadian Academy of Recording Arts and Sciences administers Canada's music industry awards, the Juno Awards, which commenced in 1970.

[edit] Sport

Main article: Sport in Canada

File:Canada2010WinterOlympicsOTcelebration.jpg

A scene at the 2010 Winter Olympics in Vancouver seconds after Team Canada won gold in men's ice hockey

Canada's official national sports are hockey in the winter and lacrosse in the summer.<ref>Wieting, Stephen G (2001). Sport and memory in North America. Frank Cass. p. 4. ISBN 0714682055. http://books.google.ca/books?id=dvWqyW9lmXsC&lpg=PP1&dq=Sport%20and%20memory%20in%20North%20America&pg=PA4#v=onepage&q&f=true. Retrieved 2011-01-14. </ref> Hockey is a national pastime and the most popular spectator sport in the country. It is also the sport most played by Canadians, with 1.65 million participants in 2004.<ref name = "sports">Conference Board of Canada (December 2004). "Survey: Most Popular Sports, by Type of Participation, Adult Population". Strengthening Canada: The Socio-economic Benefits of Sport Participation in Canada—Report August 2005. Sport Canada. http://www.pch.gc.ca/progs/sc/pubs/socio-eco/tab2_tab_e.cfm. Retrieved 2006-07-01. </ref> Canada's six largest metropolitan areas—Toronto, Montreal, Vancouver, Ottawa, Calgary, and Edmonton—have franchises in the National Hockey League (NHL), and there are more Canadian players in the NHL than from all other countries combined. Other popular spectator sports include curling and football; the latter is played professionally in the Canadian Football League (CFL).<ref name = "sports"/> Golf, baseball, skiing, soccer, volleyball, and basketball are widely played at youth and amateur levels, but professional leagues and franchises are not widespread.<ref name = "sports"/>

Canada has hosted several high-profile international sporting events, including the 1976 Summer Olympics in Montreal, the 1988 Winter Olympics in Calgary, and the 2007 FIFA U-20 World Cup. Canada was the host nation for the 2010 Winter Olympics in Vancouver and Whistler, British Columbia.<ref>"Vancouver 2010". The Vancouver Organizing Committee for the 2010 Olympic and Paralympic Winter Games. 2009. http://www.vancouver2010.com/. Retrieved 2009-10-20. </ref>

[edit] Symbols

Main article: National symbols of Canada

Canada's National symbols are influenced by natural, historical, and Aboriginal sources. The use of the maple leaf as a Canadian symbol dates to the early 18th century. The maple leaf is depicted on Canada's current and previous flags, on the penny, and on the Coat of Arms.<ref name="symbol1">Canadian Heritage (2002). Symbols of Canada. Ottawa, ON: Canadian Government Publishing. ISBN 0-660-18615-2. </ref> Other prominent symbols include the beaver, Canada Goose, Common Loon, the Crown, the Royal Canadian Mounted Police,<ref name="symbol1"/> and more recently, the totem pole and Inukshuk.<ref>Ruhl, Jeffrey (January 2008). "Inukshuk Rising". Canadian Journal of Globalization (CJOG) 1 (1): 25–30. http://cjog.ca/CJOG_files/cjog_ruhlv1n1.pdf. </ref>

The national anthem of Canada O Canada adopted in 1980, was originally commissioned by the Lieutenant Governor of Quebec, the Honourable Théodore Robitaille, for the 1880 St. Jean-Baptiste Day ceremony.<ref>"'O Canada'". The Canadian Encyclopedia. http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.com/index.cfm?PgNm=TCE&Params=U1ARTU0002611. Retrieved 2009-10-28. </ref> Calixa Lavallée wrote the music, which was a setting of a patriotic poem composed by the poet and judge Sir Adolphe-Basile Routhier. The text was originally only in French, before it was translated to English in 1906.<ref name="anthem-fr">Government of Canada (2008-06-23). "Hymne national du Canada". Canadian Heritage. Government of Canada. http://www.pch.gc.ca/pgm/ceem-cced/symbl/anthem-fra.cfm. Retrieved 2008-06-26. </ref>

[edit] See also

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Books are collections of articles that can be downloaded or ordered in print.

[edit] References

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[edit] Further reading

History

E. Riendeau, Roger (2007). A brief history of Canada (2nd ed.). Toronto: - Facts on File, cop. ISBN 9780816063352. http://books.google.ca/books?id=CFWy0EfzlX0C&lpg=PP1&dq=History%20of%20Canada&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=true.
Francis, R. D; Jones, Richard; Smith, Donald B (2009). Journeys: A History of Canada. Oxford, UK: Nelson Education. ISBN 9780176442446. http://books.google.ca/books?id=GbbZRIOKclsC&lpg=PP1&dq=Journeys%3A%20A%20History%20of%20Canada&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=true.
Hayes, Derek (2002). Historical Atlas of Canada. Douglas & McIntyre. ISBN 978155054918. http://books.google.ca/books?id=KvtEUChw9uAC&lpg=PP8&dq=Name%20of%20Canada&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=true.
Murphy, Rae; Bain, Colin M (1993). History of Canada Before 1867. N.J.: Piscataway. ISBN 0878919171. http://books.google.ca/books?id=0pFYBSaxB_wC&lpg=PP1&dq=History%20of%20Canada&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=true.

Government and law

Brooks, Stephen (2000). Canadian Democracy: An Introduction (3rd ed.). Don Mills, ON: Oxford University Press Canada. ISBN 0-19-541503-5.
Dahlitz, Julie (2003). Secession and international law: conflict avoidance – regional appraisals. The Hague: T.M.C. Asser Press. ISBN 90-6704-142-4. http://books.google.ca/books?id=nECFiV3slksC&lpg=PP1&dq=Secession%20and%20international%20law%3A%20conflict%20avoidance&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=true.

Foreign relations and military

Fox, Annette Baker (1996). Canada in World Affairs. East Lansing: Michigan State University Press. ISBN 0-87013-391-8.
Morton, Desmond; Granatstein, JL (1989). Marching to Armageddon: Canadians and the Great War 1914–1919. Toronto: Lester & Orpen Dennys. ISBN 0-88619-209-9.

Geography and climate

Quentin H. Stanford, ed (2008). Canadian Oxford World Atlas (6th ed.). Toronto: Oxford University Press (Canada). ISBN 0195429281.

Economy

Easterbrook, William Thoma; Aitken, Hugh G. J (1988). Canadian economic history. University of Toronto Press. ISBN 0802066968. http://books.google.ca/books?id=QjmE2bSRzEUC&lpg=PP1&dq=Economic%20History%20of%20Canada&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=true.
Wallace, Iain (2002). A Geography of the Canadian Economy. Don Mills, ON: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-540773-3.

Demography and statistics

Statistics Canada (October 27, 2010). Canada Year Book. Ottawa: Federal Publications (Queen of Canada). Catalogue no 11-402-XPE. http://www.statcan.gc.ca/pub/11-402-x/11-402-x2010000-eng.htm.

Language

"Annual Report – Special Edition". Office of the Commissioner of Official Languages. 2005. http://www.ocol-clo.gc.ca/docs/e/2004_05_e.pdf. Retrieved 2009-10-19.

Culture

Resnick, Philip (2005). The European Roots Of Canadian Identity. Peterborough, Ont.: Broadview Press. ISBN 1-55111-705-3. http://books.google.ca/books?id=JJLOERVCUg0C&lpg=PP1&dq=The%20European%20Roots%20Of%20Canadian%20Identity&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=true.

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