Canada's name
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The name Canada has been in use since the earliest European settlement in Canada and likely originates from a First Nations word kanata for "settlement", "village", or "land". Today, Canada is pronounced /ˈkænədə/ in English and /kanada/ in French.
The French colony of Canada, New France, was set up along the Saint Lawrence River and the northern shores of the Great Lakes. Later, as British colonies, they were called Upper Canada and Lower Canada until their union as the British Province of Canada in 1841. Upon Confederation in 1867, the name Canada was officially adopted for the new dominion, which was commonly referred to as the Dominion of Canada until after World War II.
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[edit] Name origin
Image:Map North America 1566.jpg The name Canada comes from a Wendat (Huron-Iroquoian) word, kanata, meaning "village" or "settlement".<ref name="kanata">Canadian Heritage: Origin of the Name - Canada</ref> In 1535, inhabitants of the area near present-day Quebec City used the word to direct the French explorer Jacques Cartier towards the village of Stadacona, a settlement on the site of present-day Quebec City. Another contemporary translation of kanata was "land"<ref name="rayburn1">Rayburn, Alan. 2001. Naming Canada: Stories About Canadian Place Names, 2nd ed. University of Toronto Press: Toronto; pp. 13-4.</ref>. Cartier used the word 'Canada' to refer to not only that village, but the entire area subject to Donnacona, Chief at Stadacona.<ref>Relation originale de Jacques Cartier. Paris, Tross, 1863 edition, page 48.</ref>. By 1547, maps made by early European explorers show that the name rivière de Canada was given to the nearby St. Lawrence River; the river was called Kaniatarowanenneh ("big waterway") in Mohawk, coincidentally and reinforcingly similar to kanata.
While the First Nations origin for the name Canada is now generally accepted, other possible explanations have been put forward in the past. One theory suggested that the name originated when Spanish explorers, not having explored the northern part of the continent, wrote acá nada ("nothing here") on that part of their maps.<ref>Canadian Encyclopedia "Let’s call it... Efisga" [1]</ref> A similar tale credits Portuguese explorers who, upon seeing the eastern coastline, declared a similar sentiment (cá nada há).[citation needed] However, the Spanish word for the country, Canadá, has an accent over the last letter, and sounds very little like acá nada. (The word canada without the accent does exist in the Spanish language and means "greyed" as in hair.)
[edit] After the conquest of New France
After the British conquest of New France (including ceding of the French colony, Canada) in 1763, the colony was renamed as the Province of Quebec. Despite this, in the American Revolution their Articles of Confederation (1777) included a clause pre-authorizing the admission of "Canada" as a new state if it wished to join the U.S.
Following the revolution and the influx of United Empire Loyalists into Quebec, the colony was split on 26 December 1791 into Upper and Lower Canada, sometime being collectively known as "The Canadas", the first time that the name "Canada" was used as the name of a colony. While Cartier used canadien to refer to the Iroquois residents of the colony, the term later came to be applied to French subjects born in Canada, and then to inhabitants of both colonies.
Upper and Lower Canada were merged into one colony, the Province of Canada, in 1841, based on the recommendations of the Durham Report. The former colonies were then known as Canada East and Canada West, and a single legislature was established with equal representation from each. Underpopulated Canada West opposed demands by Canada East for representation by population, but the roles reversed as Canada West's population surpassed the east's. The single colony remained governed in this way until 1 July 1867, often with coalition governments. A new capital city was being built at Ottawa, chosen in 1857 by Queen Victoria, and became a national capital.
[edit] Selection of the name Canada
At the conferences held in London to determine the form of confederation that would unite the Province of Canada (now Ontario and Quebec), the Province of New Brunswick and the Province of Nova Scotia, a delegate from either Nova Scotia or New Brunswick proposed the name Canada in February 1867, and it was unanimously accepted by the other delegates. There appears to have been little discussion<ref name="london">Creighton, Donald. 1956. The Road to Confederation. Houghton Mifflin: Boston; p. 421.</ref>, though other names were suggested (see below).
[edit] Adoption of Dominion
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During the Charlottetown Conference of 1864, John A. Macdonald, who later became the first Prime Minister of Canada, talked of "founding a great British monarchy", in connection with the British Empire. He advocated, in the fourth Canadian draft of the British North America Act, the name "Kingdom of Canada,"<ref>Farthing, John; Freedom Wears a Crown; Toronto, 1957</ref> in the text is said:
- The word 'Parliament' shall mean the Legislature or Parliament of the Kingdom of Canada.
- The word 'Kingdom' shall mean and comprehend the United Provinces of Ontario, Quebec, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick.
- The words 'Privy Council' shall mean such persons as may from time to time be appointed, by the Governor General, and sworn to aid and advise in the Government of the Kingdom.<ref>Pope, Joseph; Confederation; pg. 177</ref>
Officials at the Colonial Office in London, however, opposed this potentially "premature" and "pretentious" reference for a new country. They were also wary of antagonizing the United States which had emerged from the American Civil War as a formidable military power with unsettled grievances because of British support for the Confederate cause and thus opposed the use of terms such as kingdom or empire to describe the new country.
As a result the term dominion was chosen to indicate Canada's status as a self-governing colony of the British Empire, the first time it would be so used in reference to a country. This was an old British term for a type of government used in New England, and presumably resurrected for new purposes. It is reckoned that Sir Samuel Tilley suggested the term, inspired by Psalms 72:8 (from the King James Bible): "He shall have Dominion also from sea to sea, and from the river unto the ends of the earth."<ref name="tilley">"Sir Samuel Leonard Tilley" Library and Archives Canada.</ref> This is also echoed in Canada's motto: A mari usque ad mare (Latin for "from sea to sea").
In a letter to Queen Victoria, Lord Carnarvon stated, "The North American delegates are anxious that the United Provinces should be designated as the 'Dominion of Canada.' It is a new title, but intended on their part as a tribute to the Monarchical principle which they earnestly desire to uphold." <ref name="cdngovlcarnavon">Canadian Heritage: The Prince of Wales Royal Visit 2001, Quiz (Kids)</ref>
However, in a letter to Lord Knutsford on the topic of the loss of the use of the word kingdom, Macdonald said:
- "A great opportunity was lost in 1867 when the Dominion was formed out of the several provinces.
- "The declaration of all the B.N.A. provinces that they desired as one dominion to remain a portion of the Empire, showed what wise government and generous treatment would do, and should have been marked as an epoch in the history of England. This would probably have been the case had Lord Carnarvon, who, as colonial minister, had sat at the cradle of the new Dominion, remained in office. His ill-omened resignation was followed by the appointment of the late Duke of Buckingham, who had as his adviser the then Governor General, Lord Monck - both good men, certainly, but quite unable, from the constitution of their minds, to rise to the occasion. Had a different course been pursued, for instance, had united Canada been declared to be an auxiliary kingdom, as it was in the Canadian draft of the bill, I feel sure almost that the Australian colonies would, ere this, have been applying to be placed in the same rank as The Kingdom of Canada."
He added as a postscript:
- "P.S. On reading the above over I see that it will convey the impression that the change of title from Kingdom to Dominion was caused by the Duke of Buckingham. This is not so. It was made at the instance of Lord Derby, then foreign minister, who feared the first name would wound the sensibilities of the Yankees. I mentioned this incident in our history to Lord Beaconsfield at Hughenden in 1879, who said, 'I was not aware of the circumstance, but it is so like Derby, a very good fellow, but who lives in a region of perpetual funk.'"<ref>Senator Cools congratulates Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth II on her Forty-Seventh Anniversary of Accession to Throne, Feb 11, 1999</ref>
Use of the term dominion was formalized in 1867 through Canadian Confederation. In the Constitution of Canada, namely the Constitution Act, 1867 (British North America Acts), the preamble of the Act indicates:
- Whereas the Provinces of Canada, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick have expressed their Desire to be federally united into One Dominion under the Crown of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, with a Constitution similar in Principle to that of the United Kingdom...
and section 3 indicates that the provinces:
- ... shall form and be One Dominion under the Name of Canada; and on and after that Day those Three Provinces shall form and be One Dominion under that Name accordingly.
In J. S. Ewart's two volume work, The Kingdom Papers<ref name="ewart-331">Ewart, J. S. 1912-7. The Kingdom Papers, Volume I. McClelland, Goodchild, and Stewart Publishers: Toronto; p. 331.</ref><ref name="ewart-393">ibid; p. 393.</ref>, it is noted that the following names were considered for the union of British North America: "The United Colony of Canada", "the United Provinces of Canada", and "the Federated Provinces of Canada"<ref name="ewart-374">ibid; pp. 372-393; as per "Rank and Name," pp. 374-381.</ref>. Ewart was also an ardent advocate for the formation of "the Republic of Canada", a position which was rarely expressed in those times<ref name="ewart-262">ibid; Imperial Projects and the Republic of Canada, pp. 262-393.</ref>.
[edit] French terms for Dominion
The French translation of the 1867 British North America Act translated "One Dominion under the Name of Canada" as "une seule et même Puissance sous le nom de Canada" using Puissance (power) as a translation for dominion. Later the English loan-word dominion was also used in French. Until 1982, French text had no constitutional equality with English text.
The Fathers of Confederation met at the Quebec Conference of 1864 to discuss the terms of this new union. One issue on the agenda was to determine the Union's "feudal rank" (see Resolution 71 of the Quebec Conference, 1864). The candidates for the classification of this new union were: "the Kingdom of Canada" (le Royaume du Canada), "the Realm of Canada" (le Realme du Canada), "the Union of Canada" (l'Union du Canada), and "the Dominion of Canada" (le Dominion du Canada).
[edit] Use of Canada and Dominion of Canada
Neither the term Dominion of Canada nor Dominion government appear in the 1867 Act; however, the former appears in the Constitution Act, 1871 — usage of which was "sanctioned" <ref name="martin">Martin, Robert. 1993(?). 1993 Eugene Forsey Memorial Lecture: A Lament for British North America. The Machray Review. Prayer Book Society of Canada. — A summative piece about nomenclature and pertinent history with abundant references.</ref> — and both appear in other texts of the period, as well as on numerous Canadian bills before 1967.
Until the 1950s, the term Dominion of Canada was commonly used to identify the country. As Canada increasingly acquired political authority and autonomy from the United Kingdom, the federal government increasingly began using simply Canada on state documents. The Government of Prime Minister Louis St. Laurent enacted a formal policy of removing the word "dominion" from all updated bills and statutes. [2]
The Canada Act 1982 refers only to Canada and, as such, it is currently the only legal (as well as bilingual) name. This was also reflected later in 1982 with the renaming of the national holiday from Dominion Day to Canada Day. Section 4 of the 1867 BNA Act declares that:
- Unless it is otherwise expressed or implied, the Name Canada shall be taken to mean Canada as constituted under this Act.
and this has been interpreted to mean that the name of the country is simply Canada. No constitutional statute amends this name and the subsequent Canada Act 1982 does not use the term dominion at all; nor does it state that Canada is not a dominion. While no legal document ever says that the name of the country is anything other than Canada, Dominion and Dominion of Canada remain official titles of the country.<ref name="marsh">Marsh, James H., ed. 1988. "Dominion" The Canadian Encyclopedia. Hurtig Publishers: Toronto.</ref><ref name="rayburn2">Rayburn, pp. 19, 21.</ref><ref name="cdngov">Canadian Heritage: National Flag of Canada Day, Canada's Digital Collections: Confederation 1867, Canadian Heritage: The Prince of Wales Royal Visit 2001, Quiz</ref>
In recent years the terms Dominion of Canada and Dominion are occasionally used to distinguish modern (post-1867) Canada from either the earlier Province of Canada or from the even earlier The Canadas. More rarely, the terms are used to distinguish the federal government from the provinces. Among those who lament disuse of the term was the late Eugene Forsey, in response to what he and other monarchists consider increasing republicanism. However, the federal government continues to produce publications and educational materials that specify the currency of these official titles.<ref name="forsey">Forsey, Eugene A. 2005. How Canadians Govern Themselves (PDF), 6th ed. Canada: Ottawa; pp. 8-9.</ref><ref name="cdngov" />
[edit] Other proposed names
While the provinces' delegates spent little time, if any, in settling on 'Canada' as the name for the new country, others proposed a variety of other names<ref name="other">http://canadaonline.about.com/od/history/a/namecanada.htm</ref>:
- Albion
- Albionoria — "Albion of the north"
- Borealia – from 'borealis', the Latin word for 'northern'; compare with Australia
- Cabotia – in honour of Italian explorer John Cabot, who explored the eastern coast of Canada for England
- Colonia
- Efisga — an acronym of "English, French, Irish, Scottish, German, Aboriginal"
- Hochelaga – an old name for Montreal
- Laurentia
- Mesopelagia — "land between the seas"
- Norland
- Superior
- Tuponia — derived from 'The United Provinces of North America'
- Transatlantica
- Ursalia — "place of bears"
- Vesperia — "land of the evening star"
- Victorialand – in honour of Queen Victoria
Walter Bagehot of The Economist newspaper in London argued that the new nation should be called 'Northland' or 'Anglia' instead of Canada <ref name="bagehot">Moore, Christopher. 1997. 1867: How the Fathers Made a Deal. McClelland and Stewart: Toronto; p. 214.</ref>. On these names, the statesman Thomas D'Arcy McGee commented, "Now I would ask any honourable member of the House how he would feel if he woke up some fine morning and found himself, instead of a Canadian, a Tuponian or a Hochelegander?"
[edit] External links
[edit] Footnotes
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[edit] Other sources
- Choudry, Sujit. 2001(?). "Constitution Acts" (based on looseleaf by Hogg, Peter W.). Constitutional Keywords. University of Alberta, Centre for Constitutional Studies: Edmonton.
- Forsey, Eugene A. 2005. How Canadians Govern Themselves (PDF), 6th ed. (ISBN 0-662-39689-8). Canada: Ottawa; pp. 8-9, 23.
- Hallowell, Gerald, ed. 2004. The Oxford Companion to Canadian History. (ISBN 0-19-541559-0) Oxford University Press: Toronto; p. 183.
- Rayburn, Alan. 2001. Naming Canada: Stories About Canadian Place Names, 2nd ed. (ISBN 0-8020-8293-9) University of Toronto Press: Toronto.
- Acte Concenant l'Union et le Gouverenment du Canada, et de la Nouvelle-Ecosse, et de Nouveau Brunswick, Ainsi que les Objets qui s'y Rattachent (30e Victoria, Chap. 3) / An Act for the Union of Canada, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick and the Government Thereof; and for the Purposes Contected Therewith (30 Victoria, Cap 3), Typographie D'Augustin Cote, Quebec, Canada, pp. 209, (1868). French Preamble.eo:Nomiĝo de Kanado
