Kandidat

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Kandidat (Russian: кандидат) or Candidate of Science (Russian: Кандидат наук) is a holder of a first post-graduate scientific degree in the former USSR and in some Post-Soviet states, awarded for a dissertation (the Doctor of Science is one level higher than the Kandidat). The degree was established on January 13 1934 by a decision of the Council of People's Commissars of the USSR. It corresponded to the Doctor of Philosophy degree (Ph.D.), existing in the USA, the United Kingdom and other countries<ref name="GSE"> Great Soviet Encyclopedia., 3rd ed. (in Russian), Moscow: Sovetskaya Enciklopediya, vol. 11.</ref>. In 1971, 249,200 scientists had the degree <ref name="GSE"/>. In post-Soviet time it is roughly translated into the Ph.D., but not always recognized internationally as such, and in some official cases an additional certification is requested.^{[citation needed]}

The work on a dissertation is commonly carried out during a postgraduate study period, called aspirantura (Russian: аспирантура). It is performed either within an educational institution (such as a university) or a scientific research institution (such as an institute of the Academy of Sciences network). It may be also carried out without direct relation to Academia. In exceptional cases, the Kandidat degree may be awarded on the strength of the sum of published scientific works.

A necessary prerequisite is passing an examination called kandidat minimum (Russian: кандидатский минимум). In the Soviet Union, kandidat minimum included exams in the specialist field of the dissertant, in a foreign language of his/her choice and in Scientific Communism. In modern Russia, Scientific Communism is replaced by Philosophy.

The dissertation is presented in accredited educational or scientific institutions before a Higher Attestation Commission or Higher Attestation Committee (Russian: высшая аттестационная комиссия, ВАК). The USSR-wide organisation was called the "Higher Attestation Commission under the USSR Council of Ministers"; every Union republic had its own HAC. The seeker of the degree must have an official "scientific supervisor" (Russian: научный руководитель). The presentation is literally called "defense of dissertation" in Russian. The dissertation must be delivered together with official references of several reviewers, called "opponents" (Russian: оппоненты). In a procedure called the "defense of the dissertation" the dissertation is summarized before the Commission, followed by speeches by the opponents or the reading of their references.

There were two forms of presentation: "open defense" and "closed defense". "Open" means that the general public is admitted to the session. "Closed" means nobody is admitted but the immediate participants. The latter is performed when the topic is declared to be a matter of national security. It is widely recognized that "closed" dissertations were often below real scientific merits and arranged for Soviet apparatchiks that were to hold an office that by statute required a scientific degree.^{[citation needed]}