Cantillation
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Cantillation (Hebrew: טעמי המקרא ta`amei ha-mikra or just טעמים te`amim; Yiddish טראָפ trop (sometimes trope) is also commonly used in English) comprises special signs or marks in the Masoretic text of the Hebrew Bible (or Tanakh) which complement the letters and vowel points. Some of these signs were also sometimes used in medieval manuscripts of the Mishnah.A primary purpose of the cantillation signs is to guide the chanting of the sacred texts during public worship. Very roughly speaking, each word of text has a cantillation mark at its primary accent and associated with that mark is a musical phrase that tells how to sing that word. The reality is more complex, with some words having two or no marks and the musical meaning of some marks dependent upon context. There are different sets of musical phrases associated with different sections of the Bible. The music varies with different Jewish traditions and individual cantorial styles.
The cantillation signs also provide information on the syntactical structure of the text and some say they are a commentary on the text itself, highlighting important ideas musically.
The current system of cantillation notes has its historical roots in the Tiberian mesorah. The cantillation signs are included in Unicode as characters 0591 through 05AF in the Hebrew alphabet block.
| Hebrew alphabet | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| א ב ג ד ה ו | |||||
| ז ח ט י כך | |||||
| ל מם נן ס ע פף | |||||
| צץ ק ר ש ת | |||||
| History · Transliteration Niqqud · Dagesh · Gematria Cantillation · Numeration | |||||
Contents |
[edit] Three functions
The cantillation signs serve three functions:
- Syntax: They divide biblical verses into smaller units of meaning, a function which also gives them a limited but sometimes important role as a source for exegesis. This function is accomplished through the use of various conjunctive signs (which indicate that words should be connected in a single phrase) and especially a hierarchy of dividing signs of various strength which divide each verse into smaller phrases. The function of the disjunctive cantillation signs may be roughly compared to modern punctuation signs such as periods, commas, semicolons, etc.
- Phonetics: Most of the cantillation symbols indicate the specific syllable where the stress (accent) falls in the pronunciation of a word.
- Music: The cantillation signs have musical value: Reading the Hebrew Bible with cantillation becomes a musical chant, where the music itself serves as a tool to emphasise the proper accentuation and syntax (as mentioned previously).
Psalms, Proverbs and Job: The system of cantillation notes used throughout the Tanakh is replaced by a very different system for these three poetic books. Many of the symbols may appear the same or similar at first glance, but most of them serve entirely different functions in these three books. (Only a few signs have functions similar to what they do in the rest of the Tanakh.) The short narratives at the beginning and end of Job use the "regular" system, but the bulk of the book (the poetry) uses the special system. For this reason, there three books are referred to as Sifrei Emes (Books of Truth), the word emes meaning truth, but also being an acrostic for the first letters of the three books.
[edit] The musical function
The musical value of the cantillation notes serves the same function for Jews worldwide, but the specific tunes vary between different communities. The most common tunes today are:
- The Polish-Lithuanian melody, used by Ashkenazic descendants of eastern European Jews, is the most common tune in the world today, both in Israel and the diaspora.
- Related Ashkenazic melodies from central and western European Jewry are used far less today than before the Holocaust, but still survive in some communities.
- Among Sephardic Jews, the "Jerusalem Sephardic" (Sepharadi-Yerushalmi) melody (of Syrian origin) is the one most widely used today in Israel, and it is also used in some Sephardic communities in the diaspora.
- The old Sephardic tradition, represented amongst others by the Syrian, Egyptian, Moroccan, Italian and Spanish/Portuguese melody, is widely used in its Moroccan variety both in Israel and in the diaspora among descendants of immigrants from that country. The other varieties of the older Sephardic tradition are more sparingly used in Israel today. The Spanish/Portuguese variant is in common use in the Spanish and Portuguese Sephardi communities of Gibraltar, the Netherlands, England, Canada, USA and other places in the Americas.
- The Yemenite melody can also be heard in Israel today.
[edit] Ashkenazic melodies
In the Ashkenazic musical tradition for cantillation, each of the local geographical customs includes a total of six major and numerous minor separate melodies for cantillation:
- Torah and Haftarot (3 melodies)
- 1. Torah (general melody for the whole year)
- 2. Torah - special melody for Rosh Hashanah and Yom Kippur. This tune is also employed on Simhat Torah in various degrees (depending on the specific community). Echoes of it can also be heard for certain verses in the Torah reading for fast days.
- 3. Haftarot
- There are a number of minor cantillation versions employed for special sections, such as those for the Aseret haDibrot (Ten Commandments) and Az Yashir (Song of the Sea).
- The Five Megillot (3 melodies are employed for these five scrolls)
- 4. Esther - a light, joyous tune used for the Megillat Esther on Purim.
- 5. Lamentations - a mournful tune. Echoes of it can also be heard for certain verses in Esther and in the Torah reading preceding the Ninth of Av. The Haftarot preceding and during the Ninth of Av also use this melody.
- 6. The three remaining scrolls are publicly read within Ashkenazic communities during the Three Pilgrimage Festivals. All are read in the same melody, which may be considered the "general" melody for the megillot: The Song of Songs on Passover; Ruth on Shavuot; Ecclesiastes on Sukkot.
The Ashkenazic tradition preserves no melody for the special cantillation notes of Psalms, Proverbs, and Job, which were not publicly read in the synagogue by European Jews.
[edit] Eastern melodies
The Jews of North Africa, the Middle East, Central Asia and Yemen all had local musical traditions for cantillation. When these Jewish communities emigrated (mostly to Israel) during the twentieth century, they brought their musical traditions with them. But as the immigrants themselves grew older, many melodies began to be forgotten. Unlike the Ashkenazic tradition, the eastern traditions include melodies for the special cantillation of Psalms, Proverbs, and Job. In many eastern communities, Proverbs is read on the six Sabbaths between Passover and Shavuot, Job on the Ninth of Av, and Psalms are read on a great many occasions. The cantillation melody for Psalms can also vary depending on the occasion.
On the other hand, eastern Jewish communities have no tradition of reading the three megillot publicly on the three pilgrimage festivals, and therefore preserved no special tune for those three books.
[edit] Syntax and phonetics
| Symbol in Unicode | Anglicized name (Israeli Hebrew) |
|---|---|
| Hebrew name in Unicode | |
| ב֑ב | etnahta |
| אֶתְנַחְתָּא | |
| ב֒ב | segol |
| סֶגוֹל | |
| ב֓ב | shalshelet |
| שַׁלְשֶׁלֶת | |
| ב֔ב | zaqef qatan |
| זָקֵף־קָטָן | |
| ב֕ב | zaqef gadol |
| זָקֵף־גָדוֹל | |
| ב֖ב | tipeha=tarha |
| טִפְּחָא | |
| ב֗ב | revia |
| רְבִיעַ | |
| ב֘ב | zarqa |
| זַרְקָא | |
| ב֙ב | pashta |
| פַּשְׁתָּא | |
| ב֚ב | yetiv |
| יְתִיב | |
| ב֛ב | tevir |
| תְּבִיר | |
| ב֜ב | geresh, azla |
| גֵרֵשׁ | |
| ב֝ב | geresh muqdam |
| גֵרֵשׁ מוּקְדָם | |
| ב֞ב | gershayim |
| גֶרְשַׁיִים | |
| ב֟ב | qarney fara |
| קַרְנֵי פָרָה | |
| ב֠ב | telisha gedola |
| תְּלִשָׁא־גְדוֹלָה | |
| ב֡ב | pazer |
| פָּזֵר | |
| בב֢ | atnah hafukh |
| אתנח הפוך | |
| ב֣ב | munah |
| מוּנַח | |
| ב֤ב | mahapakh |
| מַאְפַּךְ | |
| ב֥ב | merkha, yored |
| מֵרְכָא | |
| ב֦ב | merkha kefula |
| מֵרְכָא־כְפוּלָה | |
| ב֧ב | darga |
| דַּרְגָא | |
| ב֨ב | qadma |
| קַדְמָא | |
| ב֩ב | telisha qetana |
| תּלִשָׁא־קְטַנָה | |
| ב֪ב | yerah ben yoma, galgal |
| יֶרַח־בֶּן־יוֹמָא, גלגל | |
| ב֫ב | ole |
| עוֹלֶה | |
| ב֬ב | iluy |
| עִלוּי | |
| ב֭ב | dehi |
| דחי | |
| ב֮ב | zinor |
| צנור |
[edit] History
[edit] Meanings of the names of the Te'amim
Azlo: "Going away", because it is often the end of the phrase 'Kadma ve'Azla'.
Darga: "Trill" from its sound.
Etnachto: "Pause, rest" because it is the pause in the middle of a verse.
Geresh: "Before", because it is never marked on the last syllable of a word (unless it is with Azla).
Gershayim: Double Geresh, from its appearance.
Kadmo: "To progress, advance." It always occurs at the beginning of a verse and its shape is leaning forward.
Mapach: "Turning round". In old manuscripts, it was written like a U on its side, hence like someone doing a U turn. In printed books, it has a V shape, possibly because that was easier for the early printers to make.
Mercho: "Comma" from its shape.
Mercho-kefulah: Kefulah means "double", because it looks like two merchas together. There are only five in the whole Torah: Gen. 27:25, Ex. 5:15, Lev. 10:1, Num. 14:3, Num. 32:42.
Munach: "Resting", because it may be followed by a short pause.
Pashto: "Stretching out", because its shape is leaning forward.
Pozeir: "Lavish", because it has so many notes.
Revia: "A quarter", either because it has four short notes as well as the main one, or because it splits the half verse from the start to etnachta (or etnachta to the end) into two quarters.
Segol: "Bunch of grapes" (from its shape, which looks like a bunch of grapes).
Shalshelet: "A chain." Either from its appearance or because it is a long chain of notes. There are only four in the whole Torah: Gen. 19:16, 24:12, 39:8; Lev. 8:23.
Sof Pasuk: "End of verse": it is the last note of every verse.
Telisho Ketana/Gedola: "Detached" because they are never linked to previous or following notes as one musical phrase; Ketana = small (short); Gedola = large (long).
Tevir: "Broken": there is a big jump down in pitch between the first and second notes.
Tipcho: "Diagonal". In old manuscripts, it was written as a straight diagonal line. In printed books, it is curved, apparently to make it a mirror image of Mercho, with which it is usually paired.
Yetiv: "Resting", because it may be followed by a short pause.
Zarko: "Scatterer", because it is like a scattering of notes.
Zakef Katon/Gadol: "Upright" (from their shape); Ketana = small (short); Gedola = large (long).
- Numbers 35:5 (in Parshat Massei) has two notes found nowhere else in the Torah:
- Karnei Farah: "Horns of a cow" (from its shape).
- Yerach ben Yomo: "Moon one day old" (because it looks like a crescent moon).
[edit] References for this section
- "Introduction to the Tiberian Masorah", Israel Yeivin (trans. E J Revell), pub. Scholars Press, 1980; ISBN 0-89130-373-1
- "A Treatise on the Accentuation of the Twenty-One so-called Prose Books of the Old Testament", William Wickes, pub. Oxford, 1887
- "Introduction to the Massoretico-Critical Edition of the Hebrew Bible", C D Ginsburg, pub. Trinitarian Bible Society, 1897
- "Ta'amei hammiqra be-21 sefarim uvesifrei emet, Mordechai Breuer, pub. Jerusalem, 1981 (in Hebrew)
[edit] See also
| Wikimedia Commons has media related to: |
| Wikimedia Commons has media related to: |
[edit] External links
[edit] Wikimedia projects
Wikimedia Commons: Free content audio recordings of cantillation at the Wikimedia Commons are listed at category:Cantillation and/or category:Jewish cantillation.
The recordings held at the Commons are organized by the Vayavinu Bamikra Project at Wikisource in the following languages:
- Hebrew (currently lists over 300 recordings of aliyot, haftarot, and megillot)
- English (just starting)
- Now that Wikisource subdomains have been created, contributors may set up Vayavinu Bamikra in other Wikisource languages as well.
[edit] General links
- Essays
- Texts
- Mechon Mamre has the full text of the Tanakh with cantillation marks in Unicode here (which may be downloaded for free).
- Discussion groups
- Leining - an active group.
- Recordings of Torah and Haftarah readings:
- Leining Master - MP3 recordings of the entire Torah, Haftarot, and Megillot by on CD-ROM by Rabbi Jeremy Wieder. Also available as free individual downloads at the YU Torah website. Ashkenazic pronunciation and melody.
- Navigating the Bible - Free listening to entire Torah and Haftarot (Ashkenazic melody, Israeli pronunciation) along with text, translation, transliteration, and background information on the texts being read (for beginners and advanced).
- Kol Kore - The Torah and haftarot are available in this Israeli CD-ROM program in four different formats: Jerusalem Sephardic; Moroccan; and Ashenazic melody with Ashkenazic or Israeli pronunciation. (commercial product)
- Darga (commercial products)
- Chadish Media (commercial products)
- Recordings of the Five Megillot:
- Vayavinu Bamikra (see above).
- Cantor Rabinovicz (at bottom of list; missing Kohelet).
- Virtual Cantor - contains MP3 recordings that may be freely downloaded of Esther in two versions (normal tempo and slower learning speed), Lamentations, Song of Songs.
- Recordings of the High Holidays Torah melody (Ashkenazic tradition):
- Virtual Cantor
- 613.org (at bottom of list).
- Recordings of Biblical Cantillations (Sephardic and eastern traditions):
- David Betesh and the Sephardic Pizmonim Project
- Tehillim on CD-Rom - Rabbi Shimon Alouf (Syrian tradition). Hear free samples at Torah To Go.
- Rabbi Zion Palah - Jerusalem Sephardic melody.
- Mechanical Cantillation (computer speech synthesis):
- [1] - Trainer for Torah, Haftarot, Megillot in a variety of digital voices, melodies, and pronunciations (commercial product).
- Recordings of the cantillation notes:
- [2] - Trainer
- Chanting the Bible
- Recordings of samples from various traditions:
- Mafseek Publications (Helen Chuckrow)
- Cantillation in the Mishnah:
- Online Treasury of Talmudic Manuscripts - Website provides full images of Mishnah manuscripts, some of which include partial cantillation.
- Organizations:
- Renanot - The Institute for Jewish Music
- Jewish Oral Traditions Research Center (Hebrew University)
- The National Sound Archives at the Hebrew University (catalogue not currently online).
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