Celtic Christianity
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Celtic Christianity (also known as the Old British Church, Celtic Church, Celtic Catholic Church, Culdee Church) is a controversial term used by some people for a form of Christianity, supposedly significantly differing in its organisation and some beliefs and practices from the Latin (or Roman) church, especially in the Early Middle Ages. 'Celtic Christianity' is supposed to have been practised in Ireland, Scotland and the Brythonic areas of Great Britain, initially including north, midland and eastern Anglo-Saxon England, during the early medieval period. Many scholars dispute the idea that there was a coherent and consistent system of church organisation, beliefs and practices, so-called 'Celtic Christianity' which were common to these Celtic-speaking territories in the Early Middle Ages (and beyond). Scholars have posited several explanations for the development and continuance of the notion of a specifically Celtic Christianity - these will be outlined below.
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[edit] What Celtic Christianity is
Christianity was first brought to Britain sometime after the Roman conquest, probably during the Christianization of the empire under Constantine in the 4th century. Christianity later spread to Ireland which was never part of the Roman empire. Evangelists from Ireland, Continental Europe and parts of Britain which had been Romanized were active in northern Britain and helped to eventually spread Christianity throughout all of Britain and Ireland. Celtic Christianity is thought by some to be a form of Christianity as it was first received and practised by communities within Britain and Ireland that spoke Celtic languages. The debate about the existence of the Celtic Church centres primarily around two issues arising from the early Christian experience in Britain and Ireland:
- Was its ecclesiastical structure enough to justify giving the church recognition as an organized Christian body?
- What role did Celtic Christianity have in influencing the Roman Catholic Church?
The earliest formal dispute over church supremacy and antiquity was discussed at the Synod of Whitby in 664, which was actually formed to reconcile divergent calendrical practices within Northumbria. The concluding discussions took place at the Synod of Cashel in 1172, after the invasion of Ireland by Henry II of England. This synod was organised to deal with the differences between the churches, and resulted in the theology and practices of the Celtic church being brought into line with Roman theology and practices.
[edit] The debate about the Church's existence
It is easy to exaggerate the cohesiveness of the Celtic Christian communities. Their members never saw themselves in opposition to the Catholic establishment based on Rome as did the Arians, Priscillianists or the Donatists in North Africa. Even at the height of the conflict between these communities and other Christian groups, they acknowledged the primacy of the Pope and respected his specific instructions.<ref>For example, the Irish bishop Cummian wrote in the 7th century AD, "What, then, more evil can be thought about the Mother Church than if we say 'Rome errs, Jerusalem errs, Alexandria errs, Antioch errs, the whole world errs; the Irish and British alone know what is right?'" (Maura Walsh and Daibhi O Cronin (trans. & eds.), Cummian's Letter De Controversia Paschali and the De Ratione Conputandi, [Toronto: Pontifical Institute of Mediaeval Studies, 1988], p. 81).</ref>
On the other hand, these communities did see themselves as separate from their competitors, the Anglo-Saxons. An early Welsh ecclesiastical rule levied penalties for interacting with the English, and for sharing communion with them. When St Augustine attempted to meet with a delegation of seven British bishops on the borders of the domains of Ethelbert of Kent, these bishops refused to talk or even dine with his party;<ref>Frank M. Stenton, Anglo-Saxon England, third edition (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1971), p. 110; Bede Historiam Ecclesticam Gentis Anglorum 2.2.</ref> and when Aethelfrith of Northumbria went to battle with Solomon, son of Cynan, king of Powys, hundreds of British Christian monks are said to have assembled to pray for the Welsh king.<ref>Stenton, Anglo-Saxon England, 78; Bede, ibid., </ref> It is noteworthy that the British failed to attempt to convert the Anglo-Saxons, and that the successful Celtic missions had come from further away, from the Dalriadan Scots.
[edit] Differences from the rest of Europe
Due to the difficulties in communications at this time, it was inevitable that variations between the local churches would arise. Although the practice by Bishops, upon their ordination, of circulating a statement of their beliefs did minimize these differences somewhat. This help was lost to the congregations in the British isles and Armorica with the collapse of the Roman Empire in the west. When missionaries from the Mediterranean met with those local congregations that did survive, they found differences in practice, doctrine and government. These differences were addressed in synods, from the Synod of Whitby in 664 to the Synod of Cashel. Exactly in which practices the Celtic church varied from those in the rest of Europe differ from source to source. A list of those proposed include:<ref>This list is based on Charles Plummer's essay, "Excursus on the Paschal Controversy and Tonsure" in his edition Venerablilis Baedae, Historiam Ecclesiasticam Gentis Anglorum, 1892 (Oxford: University Press, 1975), pp. 348-354.</ref>
- The method of calculating the date of Easter. The Celts celebrated Easter on the Vernal equinox. On Roman demand they agreed to celebrate it on "the first Sunday after the first full moon after the Spring equinox".
- The method of Tonsure practised by monks. The Celts shaved the front of their head, from ear to ear. It is possible that this tonsure was originally used by the druids, as we find it referred to as "tonsura magorum".[citation needed] On Roman demand they agreed to shave the crown of their heads.
- Authority of Bishops. In the Celtic Church authority was vested in Abbots and Abbesses. The role of Bishop was ceremonial. Delegates from Rome complained of "persons not in holy orders with authority in the church".
- The Immaculate Conception and the Assumption of Mary, the mother of Jesus. The Celts held these Marian Doctrines. They follow from the doctrine that Mary was exempt from Original Sin. Decuit, potuit, fecit — "It was appropriate, it was possible, it was". The Celtic view was declared dogma in 1854.
- Infant baptism. The Celts held four baptism services each year. They agreed to alter this and baptise infants within eight days of their birth.
- 1-to-1, penitent to confessor private confession. This was a Celtic invention; it was unknown outside of the Celtic Church before the sixth century. Until then, Rome required public confession.<ref>(see Catechism of the Catholic Church article 1447: "During the seventh century Irish missionaries, inspired by the Eastern monastic tradition, took to continental Europe the "private" practice of penance")</ref>
The Celtic cross, in which a symmetrical cross is superimposed on a circle, is a characteristic and distinctive Celtic Christian symbol. Use of this continued well past any separate organisation of Celtic Christianity, and has indeed never ceased to be common in the Celtic countries and among their emigré communities.
[edit] The Easter problem
The Easter problem — that is, the proper method to be used to calculate the date Easter will fall on in a given year — is a complicated story that extends beyond the topic of Celtic Christianity. As it applies to this topic, the Celtic peoples had lost contact with Rome when Victorius of Aquitania created the tables that were adopted as approved practice in 457. But as they learned of the current practice, the various communities of the Celtic church gradually returned into harmony with the predominant practice: southern Ireland agreed to this at a Synod in 632; northern Ireland at the Council of Birr around 697; the Northumbrian Church at the Synod of Whitby in 664; the Monks of Iona celebrated Easter on the Roman date in 716; and Wales in 768. Various other churches founded or influenced by clerics trained in Ireland or Wales came to celebrate Easter on the Roman date at later times.
Although historians often relegate the importance of the Easter problem, it actually had a major effect on the Catholic world at that time. Because Celtic Christianity considered itself separate and distinct in relation to Rome, Rome diligently made efforts to bring the Celtic church under its authority for many years. The submission of the Celtic church to Rome on this issue effectively expanded Rome's spiritual and political strength throughout Europe for centuries.
[edit] History
Though the full extent or popularity of Christianity in Britain is unknown at the time the Roman army left around 410, it certainly continued in parts of sub-Roman Britain, though its administrative structure may have quickly disintegrated. Saint Ailred of Rievaulx wrote that Saint Ninian founded Whithorn Priory in around 397, but a date in the early to mid-5th century is now preferred.<ref>Daphne Brooke. (1994). Wild Men and Holy Places: St. Ninian, Whithorn and the Medieval Realm of Galloway. Canongate Press. ISBN 0-86241-479-2</ref> He is believed to have travelled to Galloway from Cumbria (perhaps Carlisle). His work was continued by Saint Serf and Saint Kentigern. Saint Patrick, who probably hailed from the same area as Ninian, was an active missionary in Ireland around 435, establishing himself in Armagh as 'Apostle of Ireland'; though he had, in fact, been preceded by Saint Palladius. Saint Germanus, Bishop of Auxerre in Gaul, visited Britain in 429 and 447, and went to the site of the future St Alban's Abbey and other religious centres.
Some scholars, such as J.N.L. Myres and John Morris, have argued that the British Christian reformer Pelagius must had have a direct effect on the early development of the Celtic church in his homeland. Others, including Charles Thomas have countered that this belief is incorrect and based on projecting a modern point of view upon an earlier age.<ref>Charles Thomas. (1981). Christianity in Roman Britain to AD 500. University of California Press, Berkeley. ISBN 0-520-04392-8</ref>
While eastern England was taken over by pagan Anglo-Saxons, Christianity expanded throughout the Celtic regions to become the accepted religion of the Brythons. In what became modern Wales, this was largely due to a succession of princes who became monastic priests during the 5th and 6th centuries, founding many abbeys and churches, and becoming honoured as 'saints' after their death. Good examples are Saints Dubricius, Illtud, David, Cadoc and Deiniol. Some, like Samson and Paul Aurelian, spread the Celtic Christian word across the English Channel in Brittany. Others, like Petroc and the many sons and daughters of King Brychan of Brycheiniog, went to Cornwall and the West Country. This was also a popular place of evangelism for Irish royalty, such as Piran, Ia or Brigit.
There was a significant amount of intercourse between the churches of Ireland and Britain. The most famous Irish saints to preach extensively in Britain were those who firmly established Christianity in what is now Scotland: Saint Moluag and, particularly, Saint Columba (also known as Colum Cille), who founded the great Celtic Christian centre on Iona in 563. Monks from Iona, under Saint Aidan, then founded the See of Lindisfarne in Anglo-Saxon Northumbria in 635. From this also sprang the See of Mercia and of Essex. Areas of East Anglia influenced by Saint Fursey were also Celtic Christian.
At the Synod of Whitby, however, it was decided that the Anglo-Saxon dioceses should follow the ways of the Roman Catholic Church. Around 710, King Nechtan of the Picts also adopted Roman Catholicism.<ref>Sally M. Foster. (1996). Picts, Gaels and Scots. Batsford & Historic Scotland. ISBN 0-7134-7485-8</ref> In 768, Elfoddw, Bishop of Bangor was instrumental in persuading the Celtic Church in Wales to follow suit. It is said, however, the South Wales did not comply until 777. By about 840, the Cornish had also agreed to change. The monks of Iona had converted in 712<ref>Foster, Picts, Gaels and Scots</ref>. Minor differences continued in usages until the 12th century, when the sons of Malcolm III and Saint Margaret of Scotland reformed the Scottish Church, and in Ireland with the Synod of Cashel in 1172.
Some people believe that the Celtic Church continued underground in Britain after the general acceptance of Roman Catholicism.<ref name="CCS">Celtic Church of Scotland. The Oldest Church?. History of the Celtic Church. Retrieved on 2006-09-03.</ref>, although the evidence which exists is mixed. Currently there are a number of churches which proclaim their continuity with, and inheritance of, the Celtic Christian tradition, most notably the Celtic Apostolic Church, which though worldwide is controlled from Scotland.
[edit] See also
- Celtic Catholic Church
- Celtic Orthodox Church
- Celtic Rite
- Iro-Scottish monks
- Irish monks (papar)
- Christianity in the British isles 410-1066
- Quartodecimanism
[edit] Notes and references
[edit] External links
- Orthodox Ireland
- The Iona Community
- Celtic Catholic Church
- Celtic Christian Spirituality
- Celtic Orthodox Church in the United Statesde:Keltische Kirche
fr:Christianisme irlandais it:Cristianesimo celtico nl:Keltische christendom ja:ケルト系キリスト教
