Chomsky hierarchy

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Within the field of computer science, specifically in the area of programming languages, the Chomsky hierarchy (occasionally referred to as Chomsky–Schützenberger hierarchy) is a containment hierarchy of classes of formal grammars that generate formal languages.

This hierarchy of these grammars (also called phrase structure grammars) was described by Noam Chomsky in 1956 (see [1]). It is also named after Marcel-Paul Schützenberger who played a crucial role in the development of the theory of formal languages.

1 Formal grammars
2 The hierarchy
3 References
4 External links

[edit] Formal grammars

Main article: Formal grammar

A formal grammar consists of:

a finite set of terminal symbols;
a finite set of nonterminal symbols;
a finite set of production rules with a left- and a right-hand side consisting of a sequence of these symbols
a start symbol.

A formal grammar defines (or generates) a formal language, which is a (possibly infinite) set of sequences of symbols that may be constructed by applying production rules to a sequence of symbols which initially contains just the start symbol. A rule may be applied to a sequence of symbols by replacing an occurrence of the symbols on the left-hand side of the rule with those that appear on the right-hand side. A sequence of rule applications is called a derivation. Such a grammar defines the formal language of all words consisting solely of terminal symbols that can be reached by a derivation from the start symbol.

Nonterminals are usually represented by uppercase letters, terminals by lowercase letters, and the start symbol by <math>S</math>. For example, the grammar with terminals <math>\{a, b\}</math>, nonterminals <math>\{S, A, B\}</math>, production rules

<math>S</math> <math>\rightarrow \,</math> <math>ABS</math>

<math>S</math> <math>\rightarrow \,</math> ε (where ε is the empty string)

<math>BA</math> <math>\rightarrow \,</math> <math>AB</math>

<math>BS</math> <math>\rightarrow \,</math> <math>b</math>

<math>Bb</math> <math>\rightarrow \,</math> <math>bb</math>

<math>Ab</math> <math>\rightarrow \,</math> <math>ab</math>

<math>Aa</math> <math>\rightarrow \,</math> <math>aa</math>

and start symbol <math>S</math>, defines the language of all words of the form <math> a^n b^n </math> (i.e. <math>n</math> copies of <math>a</math> followed by <math>n</math> copies of <math>b</math>). The following is a simpler grammar that defines a similar language: Terminals <math>\{p, q\}</math>, Nonterminals <math>\{S\}</math>, Start symbol <math>S</math>, Production rules

<math>S</math> <math>\rightarrow \,</math> <math>pSq</math>

<math>S</math> <math>\rightarrow \,</math> ε

[edit] The hierarchy

The Chomsky hierarchy consists of the following levels:

Type-0 grammars (unrestricted grammars) include all formal grammars. They generate exactly all languages that can be recognized by a Turing machine. These languages are also known as the recursively enumerable languages. Note that this is different from the recursive languages which can be decided by an always-halting Turing machine.
Type-1 grammars (context-sensitive grammars) generate the context-sensitive languages. These grammars have rules of the form <math>\alpha A\beta \rightarrow \alpha\gamma\beta</math> with <math>A</math> a nonterminal and <math>\alpha</math>, <math>\beta</math> and <math>\gamma</math> strings of terminals and nonterminals. The strings <math>\alpha</math> and <math>\beta</math> may be empty, but <math>\gamma</math> must be nonempty. The rule <math>S \rightarrow \epsilon</math> is allowed if <math>S</math> does not appear on the right side of any rule. The languages described by these grammars are exactly all languages that can be recognized by a linear bounded automaton (a nondeterministic Turing machine whose tape is bounded by a constant times the length of the input.)
Type-2 grammars (context-free grammars) generate the context-free languages. These are defined by rules of the form <math>A \rightarrow \gamma</math> with <math>A</math> a nonterminal and <math>\gamma</math> a string of terminals and nonterminals. These languages are exactly all languages that can be recognized by a non-deterministic pushdown automaton. Context free languages are the theoretical basis for the syntax of most programming languages.
Type-3 grammars (regular grammars) generate the regular languages. Such a grammar restricts its rules to a single nonterminal on the left-hand side and a right-hand side consisting of a single terminal, possibly followed (or preceded, but not both in the same grammar) by a single nonterminal. The rule <math>S \rightarrow \epsilon</math> is also here allowed if <math>S</math> does not appear on the right side of any rule. These languages are exactly all languages that can be decided by a finite state automaton. Additionally, this family of formal languages can be obtained by regular expressions. Regular languages are commonly used to define search patterns and the lexical structure of programming languages.

Note that the set of grammars corresponding to recursive languages is not a member of this hierarchy.

Every regular language is context-free, every context-free language is context-sensitive and every context-sensitive language is recursive and every recursive language is recursively enumerable. These are all proper inclusions, meaning that there exist recursively enumerable languages which are not recursive, recursive languages that are not context-sensitive, context-sensitive languages which are not context-free and context-free languages which are not regular.

The following table summarizes each of Chomsky's four of grammars, the class of language it generates, the type of automaton that recognizes it, and the form its rules must have.

Grammar	Languages	Automaton	Production rules
Type-0	Recursively enumerable	Turing machine	<math>\alpha \rightarrow \beta</math> (no restrictions)
Type-1	Context-sensitive	Linear-bounded non-deterministic Turing machine	<math>\alpha A\beta \rightarrow \alpha\gamma\beta</math>
Type-2	Context-free	Non-deterministic pushdown automaton	<math>A \rightarrow \gamma</math>
Type-3	Regular	Finite state automaton	<math>A \rightarrow \epsilon</math> and <math>A \rightarrow aB</math>

[edit] References

Chomsky, Noam (1956). "Three models for the description of language". IRE Transactions on Information Theory (2): 113-124.
Chomsky, Noam (1959). "On certain formal properties of grammars". Information and Control (2): 137-167.
Chomsky, Noam, Schützenberger, Marcel P. (1963). “The algebraic theory of context free languages”, Braffort, P.; Hirschberg, D.: Computer Programming and Formal Languages. Amsterdam: North Holland, 118-161.

[edit] External links

http://www.staff.ncl.ac.uk/hermann.moisl/ell236/lecture5.htm

Automata theory: formal languages and formal grammars
Chomsky hierarchy	Grammars	Languages	Minimal automaton
Type-0	Unrestricted	Recursively enumerable	Turing machine
n/a	(no common name)	Recursive	Decider
Type-1	Context-sensitive	Context-sensitive	Linear-bounded
Type-2	Context-free	Context-free	Pushdown
Type-3	Regular	Regular	Finite
Each category of languages or grammars is a proper subset of the category directly above it.

Noam Chomsky
Bibliography (incomplete)
Linguistics: Syntactic Structures (1957) • Aspects of the Theory of Syntax (1965) • The Sound Pattern of English (1968) • The Logical Structure of Linguistic Theory (1975) • Lectures on Government and Binding (1981) • The Minimalist Program (1995)
Politics: The Fateful Triangle: The United States, Israel, and the Palestinians (1983) • Manufacturing Consent: The Political Economy of the Mass Media (with Edward Herman, 1988) • Necessary Illusions (1989) • Deterring Democracy (1992) • Class Warfare (1996) • Hegemony or Survival: America's Quest for Global Dominance (2003) • Failed States: The Abuse of Power and the Assault on Democracy (2006)
Filmography
Manufacturing Consent: Noam Chomsky and the Media (1992) • Last Party 2000 (2001) • Power and Terror: Noam Chomsky in Our Times (2002) • Distorted Morality — America's War On Terror? (2003) • Noam Chomsky: Rebel Without a Pause (TV, 2003) • The Corporation (2003) • Peace, Propaganda & the Promised Land (2004)
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