Nero

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Nero
Emperor of the Roman Empire
Image:Nerone - Monaco, Glyptothek - Foto Giovanni Dall'Orto.jpg
Reign	October 13, 54 – June 9, 68 (Proconsul from 51)
Full name	Nero Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus
Born	December 15, 37
	Antium
Died	June 9, 68
	Rome
Predecessor	Claudius
Successor	Galba
Wife/wives	Claudia Octavia
	Poppaea Sabina
	Statilia Messalina
Issue	Claudia Augusta
Dynasty	Julio-Claudian
Father	Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus
Mother	Agrippina the Younger

Nero<ref>Sabellic: strong, valiant, happy</ref> Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus (December 15, 37 – June 9, 68), born Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus, also called Nero Claudius Drusus Germanicus, was the fifth and last Roman Emperor of the Julio-Claudian dynasty (54–68). Nero was adopted by his grand-uncle Claudius to become heir to the throne. As Nero Claudius Caesar Drusus, he succeeded to the throne on October 13, 54, following Claudius' death. In 68, Nero was deposed by a military coup. His subsequent death was reportedly the result of suicide assisted by his scribe Epaphroditos motivated by the threat of execution.

Popular legend remembers Nero as a playboy and a tyrant; he is known as the emperor who "fiddled while Rome burned." These assumptions regarding his behavior are based on hostile sources, namely Suetonius, Cassius Dio and Tacitus. Nero's life was documented almost entirely by his primary rivals— the senatorial class who were pro-Flavian. Because of historical slander, it may be impossible to differentiate between what is fact and what is fiction regarding Nero's rule.

Life

Roman imperial dynasties
Julio-Claudian Dynasty

Augustus
Children
Natural - Julia the Elder
Adoptive - Gaius Caesar, Lucius Caesar, Agrippa Postumus, Tiberius
Tiberius
Children
Natural - Julius Caesar Drusus
Adoptive - Germanicus
Caligula
Children
Natural - Julia Drusilla
Adoptive - Tiberius Gemellus
Claudius
Children
Natural - Claudia Antonia, Claudia Octavia, Britannicus
Adoptive - Nero
Nero
Children
Natural - Claudia Augusta

Overview

Nero ruled from 54 to 68. During his rule, the Roman Empire was relatively peaceful and prosperous (the height of Pax Romana).<ref>This peace and prosperity under Nero is written about in contrast to previous war and strife in a poem by Marcus Annaeus Lucanus called Pharsalia[1] (Civil War) (c. 65)</ref> Nero focused much of his attention on diplomacy, trade, and increasing the cultural capital of the empire. He ordered the building of theatres and promoted athletic games. His reign had a number of successes including the war and negotiated peace with the Parthian Empire (58–63), the suppression of the British revolt (60–61), the suppression of a revolt in Gaul led by Vindex (68) and improving diplomatic ties with Greece.

Nero's failures included Galba's Hispania revolt of 68 that led to his reported suicide and the civil war that ensued from his death.

Family

Nero was born with name Lucius on December 15, 37, in Antium, near Rome.<ref>Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Nero, 1, 6</ref> Lucius was the only son of Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus and Agrippina the Younger, sister of Caligula.

Lucius' father was grandson to an elder Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus and Aemilia Lepida through their son Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus (consul 16 BC). Gnaeus was also great-grandson to Mark Antony and Octavia Minor through their daughter Antonia Major. In addition, through Octavia, he was the great-nephew of Caesar Augustus. Nero's father had been employed as a praetor and was a member of Caligula's staff when the future-emperor traveled to the East as a consul.<ref>Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Nero, 5; Life of Augustus, 65</ref> Nero's father was described by Suetonius as a murderer and a cheat who was charged by emperor Tiberius of treason, adultery and incest.<ref>Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Nero, 5</ref> Tiberius died allowing him to escape these charges.<ref>Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Nero, 5</ref> Gnaeus died of edema in 39 when Lucius was three.<ref>His edema is described as "dropsy," Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Nero, 5</ref>

Lucius' mother was Agrippina the Younger, who was granddaughter to Caesar Augustus and his wife Scribonia through their daughter Julia the Elder and her husband Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa. Agrippina's father, Germanicus, was grandson to Tiberius Claudius Nero and Livia and was the adoptive son of Tiberius. A number of ancient historians accuse Agrippina of murdering her third husband, emperor Claudius.<ref>Tacitus, Annals, XII.77; Cassius Dio, Roman History, LXI.35; Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews, XX.8; Suetonius suspects Agrippina, but mentions other suspects as well, Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Claudius, 44</ref>

Rise to power

It was not expected for Lucius to ever become emperor. His maternal uncle, Caligula, had begun his reign at the age of twenty-four with ample time to produce his own heir. Lucius' mother, Agrippina, lost favor with Caligula and was exiled in 39 after her husband's death.<ref>Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Caligula, 29</ref> Caligula seized Lucius's inheritence and sent him to be raised by his less wealthy aunt, Domitia Lepida.<ref>Nero's aunt is describes as being "almost in actual want," Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Nero, 6</ref>

Caligula produced no heir. He, his wife Caesonia, and their infant daughter Julia Drusilla were murdered in 41.<ref>Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews, XIX.1.14, XIX.2.4</ref> These events led to Claudius, Caligula's uncle, to become emperor.<ref>Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews, XIX.3</ref> Claudius allowed Agrippina to return from exile.<ref>Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Nero 6</ref>

Claudius had married twice before marrying Messalina.<ref>Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Claudius, 26</ref> His previous marriages produced three children including a son, Drusus, who died at a young age.<ref>Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Claudius, 27</ref> He had two children with Messalina- Claudia Octavia (b. 40) and Britannicus (b. 41).<ref>Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Claudius, 27</ref> Messalina was executed by Claudius in 48.<ref>Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Claudius, 26</ref>

In 49, Claudius married a fourth time to Agrippina.<ref>Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Claudius, 27</ref> Lucius was officially adopted in 50 and renamed Nero Claudius Caesar Drusus (see adoption in Rome).<ref>Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Nero, 7</ref> Nero was older than his step-brother, Britannicus, and became heir to the throne.

Nero was proclaimed an adult in 51 at the age of fourteen.<ref>Tacitus, Annals XII.50</ref> He was appointed proconsul, entered and first addressed the Senate, made joint public appearances with Claudius, and was featured in coinage.<ref>Tacitus, Annals XII.50; Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Nero, 7</ref> In 53, he married his step-sister Claudia Octavia.<ref>Tacitus, Annals XII.68; Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Nero, 7</ref>

Emperor

Early rule

Claudius died in 54 and Nero was established as emperor. Many ancient historians claim Agrippina poisoned Claudius.<ref>Tacitus, Annals, XII.77; Cassius Dio, Roman History, LXI.35; Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews, XX.8; Suetonius suspects Agrippina, but mentions other suspects as well, Suetonius, Life of Claudius, 44</ref> It is not known how much Nero knew or was involved with the death of Claudius,<ref>Cassius Dio's and Suetonius' accounts claim Nero knew of the murder (Cassius Dio, Roman History, LXI.35; Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Nero, 33), but Tacitus' and Josephus' accounts only mention Agrippina (Tacitus, Annals, XII.77; Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews, XX.8)</ref> but Suetonius wrote that:

...even if [Nero] was not the instigator of the emperor's death, he was at least privy to it, as he openly admitted; for he used afterwards to laud mushrooms, the vehicle in which the poison was administered to Claudius, as "the food of the gods, as the Greek proverb has it".<ref>Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Nero, 33</ref>

Image:Nero Palatino Inv618.jpg

Nero became emperor at seventeen, the youngest Emperor yet.<ref>Augustus was 35, Tiberius was 65, Caligula was 24 and Cladius was 50</ref> Ancient historians describe Nero's early reign as being strongly influenced by his mother Agrippina, his tutor Lucius Annaeus Seneca, and the praefectus praetorianus Burrus, especially in the first year.<ref>Cassius Dio claims Seneca and Burrus "took the rule entirely into their own hands" when Nero became emperorin 54, but "after the death of Britannicus, Seneca and Burrus no longer gave any careful attention to the public business" in 55 (Cassius Dio, Roman History, LVI); Tacitus writes of Burrus and Seneca having heavy influence over young Nero as late as 58 (Tacitus, Annals, XIII); Suetonius describes Nero's early rule as his own, but does mention that "His mother offended him by too strict surveillance and criticism of his words and acts" (Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, The Life of Nero, 34)</ref> The first few years of Nero's rule were known as examples of fine administration. The matters of the Empire were handled effectively and the Senate enjoyed a period of renewed influence in state affairs.<ref>Tacitus, Annals XIII.5-6</ref>

Very early in Nero's rule, problems arose from competition for influence between Agrippina and Nero's two advisers, Seneca and Burrus. In 54, Agrippina tried to sit down next to Nero while he met with an Armenian envoy, but Seneca stopped her and prevented a scandalous scene.<ref>Tacitus, Annals XIII.6</ref> Nero's personal friends also mistrusted Agrippina and told Nero to beware of his mother.<ref>Tacitus, Annals XIII.14</ref> Nero was reportedly unsatisfied with his marriage to Octavia and entered an affair with Claudia Acte, a former slave.<ref>Tacitus, Annals, XIII.13</ref> In 55, Agrippina attempted to intervene in favor of Octavia and demanded that her son dismiss Acte. Nero, with the support of Seneca, resisted the intervention of his mother in his personal affairs.<ref>Tacitus, Annals, XIII.14</ref>

With Agrippina's influence over her son severed, she reportedly turned to a younger candidate for the throne.<ref>Tacitus, Annals, XIII.16</ref> Nearly fifteen-year-old Britannicus was still legally a minor, but was approaching legal adulthood.<ref>Tacitus, Annals, XIII.16</ref> According to Tacitus, Agrippina hoped that with her support, Britannicus, being the blood son of Claudius, would be seen as the true heir to the throne by the state over Nero.<ref>Tacitus, Annals, XIII.18</ref> However, the youth died suddenly and suspiciously on February 12, 55, the very day before his proclamation as an adult had been set for.<ref>Tacitus, Annals, XIII.20</ref> Nero claimed that Britanicus died from an epileptic seizure, but ancient historians all claim Britanicus' death came from Nero poisoning him.<ref>Tacitus, Annals, XIII.20; Jospehus, Antiquities of the Jews, XX.8.3; Suetonius, Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Nero, 33; Cassius Cio, Roman History, LXI.7</ref> According to Suetonius,

[Nero] attempted the life of Britannicus by poison, not less from jealousy of his voice (for it was more agreeable than his own) than from fear that he might sometime win a higher place than himself in the people's regard because of the memory of his father.<ref>Suetonius, Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Nero, 33</ref>

After the death of Britannicus, Agrippina was accused of slandering Octavia and Nero ordered her out of the imperial residence.<ref>Tacitus, Annals XIII.24-25</ref>

Matricide and consolidation of power

Over time, Nero became progressively more powerful. In 55, he removed Marcus Antonius Pallas, an ally of Agrippina, from his position in the treasury.<ref>Tacitus, Annals, XIII.16</ref> Pallas, along with Burrus, were accused of conspiring against the emperor to bring Faustus Cornelius Sulla Felix to the throne.<ref>Tacitus, Annals, XIII.27</ref> Seneca was accused of having relations with Agrippina and embezzlement.<ref>Cassius Dio, Roman History, LXI.10</ref> Seneca was able to get himself, Pallas and Burrus aquited.<ref>Cassius Dio, Roman History, LXI.10</ref> According to Cassius Dio, at this time, Seneca and Burrus reduced their role in governing from careful management to mere moderation of Nero.<ref>Cassius Dio, Roman History, LXI.7</ref>

In 58, Nero became romantically involved with Poppaea Sabina, the wife of his friend and future emperor Otho.<ref>Tacitus, Annals XIII.59</ref> Reportedly because a marriage to Poppaea and a divorce from Octavia did not seem politically feasible with Agrippina alive, Nero ordered the murder of his mother in 59.<ref>Tacitus, Annals XIV.1</ref> Suetonius writes this of Nero plan: Image:Remorse of Nero.jpg

he devised a collapsible boat to destroy her by shipwreck or by the falling in of its cabin. Then he pretended a reconciliation and invited her in a most cordial letter to come to Baiae and celebrate the feast of Minerva with him. On her arrival, instructing his captains to wreck the galley in which she had come, by running into it as if by accident, he detained her at a banquet, and when she would return to Bauli, offered her his contrivance in place of the craft which had been damaged, escorting her to it in high spirits. The rest of the night he passed sleepless in intense anxiety, awaiting the outcome of his design. On learning that everything had gone wrong and that she had escaped by swimming, driven to desperation he secretly had a dagger thrown down beside her freedman Lucius Agelmus, when he joyfully brought word that she was safe and sound, and then ordered that the freedman be seized and bound, on the charge of being hired to kill the emperor; that his mother be put to death, and the pretense made that she had escaped the consequences of her detected guilt by suicide<ref>Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Nero, 34</ref>

In 62 Nero's adviser, Burrus, died.<ref>Tacitus, Annals XIV.54</ref> Additionally, Seneca was again faced with embezzlement charges.<ref>Tacitus, Annals XIV.55</ref> Seneca asked Nero for permission to retire from public affairs.<ref>Tacitus, Annals XIV.59</ref> Nero declared a divorce to Octavia on grounds of infertility, leaving him free to marry Poppaea.<ref>Tacitus, Annals XIV.69</ref> Octavia suddenly died on June 9, 62. To consolidate power, Nero executed some of his few remaining relatives that year as well-

Gaius Rubellius Plautus—his mother Julia Drusi Caesaris was granddaughter to Tiberius and Vipsania Agrippina through their son Julius Caesar Drusus. She was also granddaughter to Drusus and Antonia Minor through their daughter Livilla.
Faustus Cornelius Sulla Felix—grandson to Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus and Antonia Major through their daughter Domitia Lepida. He was also maternal half-brother to Messalina. He had married Claudia Antonia, only daughter of Claudius and Aelia Paetina.
Domitia Lepida Major - Aunt; became an influential rival of Agrippina the Younger. Nero visited his aunt while she was sick and she commented that when he shaves his beard (A Roman symbolic act, usually performed during a ceremony at the age of twenty-one), she will gladly die peacefully. Nero turned to those with him and joked, "I'll take it off at once." He then ordered the doctors to overdose his aunt with a fatal strength of laxative and seized her property while she was dying.

War and peace with Parthia

Shortly after Nero's assension to the throne in 55, the Roman vassal kingdom of Armenia overthrew their prince Rhadamistus and he was replaced with the Parthian prince Tiridates.<ref>Tacitus, Annals, XIII.7</ref> This was seen as a Parthian invasion of Roman territory.<ref>Tacitus, Annals, XIII.7</ref> There was concern in Rome over how the young emperor would handle the situation.<ref>Tacitus, Annals, XIII.8</ref> Nero reacted by immediately sending the military to the region under the command of Gnaeus Domitius Corbulo.<ref>Tacitus, Annals, XIII.9</ref> The Parthians temporarily relinquished control of Armenia to Rome.<ref>Tacitus, Annals, XIII.10</ref>

The peace was not lasting and full-scale war broke out in 58. The Parthian king Vologases I refused to remove his brother Tiridates from Armenia.<ref>Tacitus, Annals, XIII.42</ref> The Parthians began a full-scale invasion of the Armenian kingdom.<ref>Tacitus, Annals, XIII.46</ref> Commander Corbulo responded and repelled most of the Parthian army that same year.<ref>Tacitus, Annals, XIII.55</ref> Tiridates retreated and Rome again controlled most of Armenia.<ref>Tacitus, Annals, XIII.55</ref>

Nero was hailed vigoriously in public for this initial victory.<ref>Tacitus, Annals, XIII.56</ref> Tigranes, a Cappadocian noble raised in Rome, was installed by Nero as the new ruler of Armenia.<ref>Tacitus, Annals, XIV.36</ref> Corbulo was appointed governor of Syria as a reward.<ref>Tacitus, Annals, XIV.36</ref> Image:LocationParthia.PNG

In 62, Tigranes invaded the Parthian city of Adiabene.<ref>Tacitus, Annals, XV.1</ref> Again, Rome and Parhia were at war and this continued until 63. Parthia began building up for a strike against the Roman province of Syria.<ref>Tacitus, Annals, XV.4</ref> Corbulo tried convince Nero to continue the war, but Nero opted for a peace deal.<ref>Tacitus, Annals, XV.19</ref> There was anxiety in Rome about eastern grain supplies and a budget deficit.<ref>Tacitus, Annals, XV.21</ref>

The result was a deal where Tiridates again became the Armenian king, but was crowned in Rome by emperor Nero.<ref>Tacitus, Annals, XV.4</ref> In the future, the king of Armenia was to be a Parthian prince, but his appointment required approval from the Romans. Tiridates was forced to come to Rome and partake in a ceremonies meant to display Roman dominance.<ref>Tacitus, Annals, XV.38</ref> The Roman people were said to be overjoyed by lives saved through this peace deal.<ref>Tacitus, Annals, XV.38</ref>

This peace deal of 63 was a considerable victory for Nero politically.<ref>Cassius Dio, Roman History, LXII.23</ref> Nero became very popular in the eastern provinces of Rome and with the Parthians as well.<ref>Cassius Dio, Roman History, LXII.23</ref> The peace between Parthia and Rome lasted 50 years until emperor Trajan of Rome invaded Armenia in 114.

Even Suetonius, who wrote very ill of Nero, said this of Nero and Parthia:

Vologaesus, King of the Parthians, when he sent envoys to the Senate to renew his alliance, earnestly begged this too, that honor be paid to the memory of Nero. In fact, twenty years later,<ref>in the 80s, long after Nero's suicide</ref> when I was a young man, a person of obscure origin appeared, who gave out that he was Nero, and the name was still in such favor with the Parthians, that they supported him vigorously and surrendered him with great reluctance.<ref>Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Nero, 56</ref>

Major rebellions and power struggles

Rome was relatively peaceful and prosperous under Nero's 13 year reign with the war with Parthia as his only major war. Like many emperors, Nero faced a number of internal rebellions and power struggles.

In 61 a major rebellion broke out in the new province of Britannia, centered upon the native tribal leader Boudica, Queen of the Iceni, who had been flogged and whose daughters had been raped by the Romans. The rebellion was eventually crushed, but the military and civilian casualties and the total destruction of three cities were a heavy toll to pay. The fault of Nero in this rebellion is debatable but there was certainly an impact (both positive and negative) upon the prestige of his regime.

In 65, Gaius Calpurnius Piso, a Roman statesman, organized a conspiracy against Nero. The conspiracy failed and a number of people were executed including Nero's former friend Lucanus, the poet. Nero's previous advisor, Seneca was ordered to commit suicide after discussing the plot with the conspirators.

In 66, there was the Jewish revolt in Judea steming from Greek and Jewish religious tension. In 67, Nero dispatched Titus Flavius Vespasianus to restore order. This revolt was eventually put down by 70. This revolt is famous for Romans breaching the walls of Jerusalem and destroying the Temple of Jerusalem.

In 68, Julius Vindex, imperial legate in Lyon in Gaul, rebelled against the fiscal politics of Nero. The revolt spread throughout Gaul and the other western provinces. The governor of Hispania Citerior, Servius Sulpicius Galba, and the legate of Lusitania, Salvius Otho, joined the rebellion. Nero took over the consulate to have the necessary powers to react. The legate of superior Germany, the Lucius Virginius Rufus, the legate of inferior Germany, Fonteius Capito, and the governors of Pannonia and Dalmatia publicly took sides with Nero. All the eastern provinces stayed faithful to Nero as well. Within a month the troops of Virginius Rufus defeated those of Vindex who committed suicide. Galba's one legion was confined in the city of Clunia.

Nero had regained the control of the situation militarily, but this opportunity was used by his enemies in Rome. The Praetorian Prefect, Nymphidius Sabinus, declared allegiance to Galba. The senate then declared Nero a public enemy. The next day, the Praetorian guard captured Nero and he reportedly committed suicide.

After Nero's death, Rome descended into a period civil war known as the Year of the Four Emperors. Nero's enemies fought among themselves for power. Galba, Otho and Vitellius were briefly emperor until Nero's general Titus Flavius Vespasianus returned from Judea and restored order as emperor.<ref name="100lives">Canning, J. (1985). 100 Great Lives of Antiquity. Guild Publishing London. 213-219.</ref>

Great Fire of Rome

On the night July 18 to July 19, 64 the Great Fire of Rome erupted. The fire started at the southeastern end of the Circus Maximus in shops selling inflammable goods.<ref>Tacitus, Annals XV.37.</ref>

How large the fire was is up for debate. According to Tacitus, who was 9 at the time of the fire, it spread quickly and burnt for nine days, destroying two thirds of the city. Only two other historians who lived through the period ever mentioned the fire. Suetonius, another anti-Nero historian, also mentions it (although he mentions nothing of Christians) and Pliny the Elder mentions it in passing.<ref>Pliny mentions trees that lasted "down to the Emperor Nero’s conflagration" (Pliny the Elder, Natural Histories XVII)</ref> Other historians who lived through the period (including Josephus, Dio Chrysostom, Plutarch, and Epictetus) make no mention of it. The only other account on the size of fire is an interpolation in a forged Christian letter from Seneca to Paul: "A hundred and thirty-two houses and four blocks have been burnt in six days; the seventh brought a pause."<ref>The Correspondence of Paul and Seneca (forged)</ref> This account implies less than a tenth of the city was burnt. Rome contained about 1,700 private houses and 47,000 apartment blocks.

It was said by Suetonius and Cassius Dio that Nero himself was the arsonist and sang the "Sack of Ilium" in stage costume while the city burned.<ref>Suetonius, Life of Nero, 38; Cassius Dio, Roman History LXII.16</ref> However, Tacitus' account has Nero in Antium at the time of the fire. <ref>Tacitus, Annals XV</ref> Tactitus said that Nero playing his lyre and singing while the city burned was only rumor, and that so too was the legend that Nero fiddled while Rome burned. However, this is an anachronism as the fiddle had not yet been invented, and would not be for over 1,000 years.<ref>Earliest refference to Nero fiddling- William Cobbett, Advice to Young Men And (Incidentally) to Young Women in the Middle and Higher Ranks of Life, 1829</ref>

According to Tacitus, upon hearing news of the fire, Nero rushed back to Rome to organize a relief effort, which he paid for from his own funds.<ref>Tacitus, Annals XV</ref> After the fire, Nero opened his palaces to provide shelter for the homeless, and arranged for food supplies to be delivered in order to prevent starvation among the survivors. In the wake of the fire, he made a new urban development plan. Houses after the fire were spaced out, built in brick, and faced by porticos on wide roads. He built the complex known as the Domus Aurea along with many new gardens and statues. To find the necessary funds for the reconstruction, tributes were imposed on the provinces of the empire.

It is uncertain who or what actually caused the fire. In a famously ambiguous sentence, Tacitus says that Nero had Christians arrested and condemned "not so much for incendiarism as for their hatred of the human race."<ref>Tacitus, Annals XV.44)</ref> Suetonius and Cassius Dio favor Nero as the arsonist, but major accidentally started fires were common in ancient Rome and this is probably no exception. In fact, Rome burned again under Vitellius in 69<ref>during Vespasian's siege</ref> and under Titus in 80.<ref>Suetonius, Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Titus, VIII</ref>

According to Tacitus, the confused population searched for a scapegoat and soon rumors held Nero responsible. Nero had to engage in scapegoating of his own and chose for his target a small Eastern sect called the Christians. He ordered Christians to be thrown to dogs in arenas, while others were crucified and burned.

Tacitus described the event:

"And so, to get rid of this rumor, Nero set up [i.e., falsely accused] as the culprits and punished with the utmost refinement of cruelty a class hated for their abominations, who are commonly called Christians. Nero’s scapegoats were the perfect choice because it temporarily relieved pressure of the various rumors going around Rome. Christus, from whom their name is derived, was executed at the hands of the procurator Pontius Pilate in the reign of Tiberius. Checked for a moment, this pernicious superstition again broke out, not only in Iudaea, the source of the evil, but even in Rome... Accordingly, arrest was first made of those who confessed; then, on their evidence, an immense multitude was convicted, not so much on the charge of arson as because of [their] hatred for the human race. Besides being put to death they were made to serve as objects of amusement; they were clothed in the hides of beasts and torn to death by dogs; others were crucified, others set on fire to serve to illuminate the night when daylight failed. Nero had thrown open his grounds for the display, and was putting on a show in the circus, where he mingled with the people in the dress of charioteer or drove about in his chariot. All this gave rise to a feeling of pity, even towards men whose guilt merited the most exemplary punishment; for it was felt that they were being destroyed not for the public good but to gratify the cruelty of an individual."—Tacitus,Annals XV.44]

It should be noted that other than this incident, there is no report of Nero abusing Christians or the Christian religion. It is unknown whether these so-called criminals were guilty or innocent. It is also unknown whether they were executed because they were Christian or if it was a coincidence. Some historians believe that Nero may have been temporarily influenced by his wife, Poppea, who was the protector of the Jewish community in Rome during the significant Christian-Jewish tension and violence in the city at the time.

Most likely, this was an act of political desperation where Nero felt he needed to blame someone to satisfy public demands. After the fire, there was certainly economic hardship with much of the population homeless and jobless. Additionally, the laboring and wealthy now had a heavy tax burden to pay for the reconstruction of Rome. To quell the masses during this crisis, Nero may have chosen to scapegoat the unpopular Christian minority. Nonetheless, it is unlikely that Nero acted because of any personal hatred towards Christians (since he did not act against them before or after this event) or "to gratify [his] cruelty" (since he was known to dislike gladiatorial violence).

Among those that believed that Nero was arsonist, many suggested the idea that he had simply burned the area to make way for new city improvements. At the time of the fire, Rome's streets were narrow and prone to traffic and it was said that Nero had plans to widen the streets. Others claimed that Nero wished to build a golden house and monument depicting himself in the centre of the city. Whatever the case, the city sections that were errected in place of the burnt ones were a vast improvement.<ref name="100lives">Canning, J. (1985). 100 Great Lives of Antiquity. Guild Publishing London. 213-219.</ref>

Nero the artist and the Olympic Games

Nero considered himself a great artist and performer. He even composed songs that were performed by other entertainers throughout the empire.<ref>Philostratus II, Life of Apollonius Book 4</ref> It was said that Nero loved to perform before a crowd and craved the attention and applause. When he was performing, he insisted that all attention be on him during his entire performance.

While he was singing no one was allowed to leave the theater even for the most urgent reasons. And so it is said that some women gave birth to children there, while many who were worn out with listening and applauding, secretly leaped from the wall, since the gates at the entrance were closed, or feigned death and were carried out as if for burial.—Suetonius, Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Nero

Nero was convinced to participate in the Olympic Games in order to improve relations with Greece and display Roman dominance.<ref>Philostratus II, Life of Apollonius, Book 5</ref> Nero left for Greece in 67, where he participated in the games and performed as a singer. Meanwhile in Rome, Nymphidius Sabinus (a colleague of Tigellinus, taking the place of one of the Pisonian conspirators) collected the support of praetorians and Senators. Nero's participation went along with huge sums of bribery; the Greeks postponed the Games upon Nero's wish and furthermore introduced the chariot race. A magnificent villa in Olympia was erected for Nero's stay (and can be visited at the archaeological site). Even though Nero was doubtfully a worthy competitor, he won the Games nevertheless through bribes and due to his status as emperor.

When performing, Nero was said to have had a keen rivalry with his opponents:

As if his rivals were of quite the same station as himself, he used to show respect to them and try to gain their favor, while he slandered them behind their backs, sometimes assailed them with abuse when he met them, and even bribed those who were especially proficient. When the victory was won, he made the announcement himself; and for that reason he always took part in the contests of the heralds. To obliterate the memory of all other victors in the games and leave no trace of them, their statues and busts were all thrown down by his order, dragged off with hooks, and cast into [sewers]—Suetonius, Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Nero

Suicide

Year of the Four Emperors
Batavian Rebellion – Bedriacum

In 68, Gaius Julius Vindex, the governor of Gallia Lugdunensis, revolted. The revolt spread throughout Gaul and the other western provinces. The governor of Hispania Citerior, Servius Sulpicius Galba, and the legate of Lusitania, Salvius Otho, joined the rebellion. The rebellion in Gaul was put down and Nero ordered the death of Galba. Galba declared his loyalty to the Senate and the People of Rome, no longer recognizing Nero's authority. Moreover, he started organizing his own campaign for the empire.

As a result, Lucius Clodius Macer, legate of the legion III Augusta in Africa, revolted and stopped sending grain to Rome. Nymphidius influenced the imperial guard, which turned against Nero on the promise of financial reward by Galba.

The Senate deposed Nero, and declared him an enemy of the state. Nero was captured and committed suicide on June 9, 68 rather than face execution. It was said by Cassius Dio that he uttered the last words "Jupiter, what an artist dies in me!"<ref>Cassius Dio, LXIII.29</ref> Suetonius, however, states that Nero uttered his last words as he lay bleeding to death on the floor. Upon seeing the figure of a Roman soldier who had come to capture him, the confused and dying emperor thought that the centurion was coming to rescue him, and muttered the phrase "this is fidelity."<ref>Suetonius, Life of Nero, 49</ref>

With his death, the Julio-Claudian dynasty came to an end. Chaos ensued in the Year of the four emperors.<ref>The chaos of the Year of the Four Emperors is told about in Tacitus, Histories, and Plutarch, The Parallel Lives, The Life of Galba</ref>

Mourning Nero

According to Tacitus, Nero's death was welcomed by Senators, nobility and the upper-class.<ref>Tacitus, Histories, I.4</ref> The lower-class, slaves, and frequenters of the arena and the theater, on the other hand, were upset with the news.<ref>Tacitus, Histories, I.4</ref> Members of the military were said to have mixed feelings, as they had allegiance to Nero, but were bribed to overthrow him.<ref>Tacitus, Histories, I.5</ref>

The civil war during the Year of the Four Emperors was described by ancient historians as a troubling period.<ref>Tacitus, Histories, I.1</ref> According to Tacitus, this instability was rooted in the fact that emperors could no longer rely on the perceived legitimacy of the imperial bloodline, as Nero and those before him could.<ref>Tacitus, Histories, I.4</ref> Galba began his short reign with the execution of many allies of Nero and possible future enemies.<ref>Tacitus, Histories, I.6</ref> One notable enemy included Nymphidius Sabinus, who claimed to be the son of emperor Caligula.<ref>Plutarch, The Parallel Lives, The Life of Galba, 9</ref>

Otho overthrew Galba. Otho was said to be liked by many soldiers because he resembled Nero.<ref>Tacitus, Histories, I.13</ref> It was said that the common Roman hailed Otho as Nero himself.<ref>Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Otho, 7</ref> Otho used "Nero" as a surname and reerected many statues to Nero.<ref>Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Otho, 7</ref> Vitellius overthrew Otho. Vitellius began his reign with a large funeral for Nero complete with songs written by Nero.<ref>Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Vitellius, 11</ref>

Through the civil war and well into the Flavian dynasty, public sentimentality for Nero continued. This was especially prevalent in the eastern provinces, where Nero was the most popular. Philostratus wrote:

The fact is, Nero restored the liberties of Hellas with a wisdom and moderation quite alien to his character; and the cities regained their Doric and Attic characteristics, and a general rejuvenescence accompanied the institution among them of a peace and harmony such as not even ancient Hellas ever enjoyed. Vespasian, however, on his arrival in the country took away her liberty, alleging their factiousness with other pretexts hardly justifying such extreme severity.<ref>Philostratus II, The Life of Apollonius, Book 5</ref>

Apollonius of Tyana, in a letter to Vespasian wrote:

Greeting: You have, they say, enslaved Hellas, and you imagine you have excelled Xerxes. You are mistaken. You have only fallen below Nero. For the latter held our liberties in his hand and respected them. Farewell.<ref>Letter from Apollonius to Emperor Vespasian, Philostratus II, The Life of Apollonius, Book 5</ref>

After Nero's suicide in 68, there was a widespread belief, especially in the eastern provinces, that he was not dead and somehow would return.<ref>Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Nero, 57; Tacitus, Histories II.8; Cassius Dio, Roman History, LXVI.19</ref>

At least three Nero imposters emerged leading rebellions. The first, who sang and played the cithara or lyre and whose face was similar to that of the dead emperor, appeared in 69 during the reign of Vitellius.<ref>Tacitus, Histories II.8</ref> After persuading some to recognize him, he was captured and executed.<ref>Tacitus, Histories II.8</ref> Sometime during the reign of Titus (79-81) there was another imposter who appeared in Asia and also sang to the accompaniment of the lyre and looked like Nero but he, too, was killed.<ref>Cassius Dio, Roman History, LXVI.19</ref> Twenty years after Nero's death, during the reign of Domitian, there was a third pretender. Supported by the Parthians, they hardly could be persuaded to give him up<ref>Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caears, Life of Nero, 57.</ref> and the matter almost came to war.<ref>Tacitus, Histories I.2</ref>

Nero and ancient historians

Nero is spoken poorly of by many different sources. Little in ancient times paints him in a favorable light, although he was a competent emperor for most of his rule and very popular with the Roman people, especially in the east. Dio Chrysostom wrote that the Roman people were very happy with Nero and would have allowed him to rule indefinitely. They longed for his rule once he was gone and embraced imposters when they appeared:

Indeed the truth about this has not come out even yet; for so far as the rest of his subjects were concerned, there was nothing to prevent his continuing to be Emperor for all time, seeing that even now everybody wishes he were still alive. And the great majority do believe that he still is, although in a certain sense he has died not once but often along with those who had been firmly convinced that he was still alive -Dio Chrysostom, Discourse XXI, On Beauty

This vast disparity in accounts of Nero's life suggests bias in historical sources.

Defense of Nero

Image:Josephus.jpg The historian Josephus (37-100) was the first to mention bias against Nero. Of other historians, he said:

But I omit any further discourse about these affairs; for there have been a great many who have composed the history of Nero; some of which have departed from the truth of facts out of favor, as having received benefits from him; while others, out of hatred to him, and the great ill-will which they bare him, have so impudently raved against him with their lies, that they justly deserve to be condemned. Nor do I wonder at such as have told lies of Nero, since they have not in their writings preserved the truth of history as to those facts that were earlier than his time, even when the actors could have no way incurred their hatred, since those writers lived a long time after them. Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews XX.8)

Senatorial historians

Bias largely arises from history being written by the Senatorial Class and the elite, who disliked Nero for his attempts to be a friend of the lower classes, often at the elite's expense, and to usurp political authority from the senate.<ref>For instance, in 57, he removed the control of the administration of the treasury (aerarium Saturni) from the senate. The senate lost the power of seigniorage. Nero attempted to lower duties on imports to allow for cheaper food for the public. The senate, controlled by the rich agrarian owners, prevented Nero from proceeding with this reform.</ref> Although they proposed to make him consul for life (Nero refused), the main assassination attempts against him (eg Piso, 65) originated in the senate. Senatorial historians included:

Tacitus Publius Cornelius

Main article: Annals (Tacitus)

The son of a procurator, who married into the elite family of Agricola. He entered his political life as a senator after Nero's death and, by Tacitus' own admission, owed much to Nero's rivals. Realizing that this bias may be apparent to others, Tacitus protests that his writing is true:

I would not deny that my elevation was begun by Vespasian, augmented by Titus, and still further advanced by Domitian; but those who profess inviolable truthfulness must speak of all without partiality and without hatred (Tacitus, History, I.1)

Suetonius Tranquillus

Main article: Lives of the Twelve Caesars

Suetonius was a member of the equestrian order and head of the department of the imperial correspondence. Removed by Hadrianus in 121, he started writing biographies of the emperors, accentuating the anecdotal and sensational aspects.

Suetonius, while generally a high-quality historian, has sometimes been accused of favoring certain emperors over others in his biographies. Portions of his biography of Nero appear openly hostile, and while it might be possible that Nero's rule invited such hostility, some modern historians question the accuracy of his account. For example, the following quote, often taken as a sign of Nero's insanity, might simply be propaganda:

Although at first Nero's acts of wantonness, lust, extravagance, avarice and cruelty were gradual, some thought that they might be dismissed as senslessness of youth. However, even then their nature was such that no one doubted that they were defects of his character and not due to his time of life.

One example given is this:

He castrated the boy Sporus and actually tried to make a woman of him; and he married him with all the usual ceremonies, including a dowry and a bridal veil, took him to his home attended by a great throng, and treated him as his wife. And the witty jest that someone made is still current, that it would have been well for the world if Nero's father Domitius had had that kind of wife. This Sporus, decked out with the finery of the empresses and riding in a litter, he took with him to the courts and marts of Greece, and later at Rome through the Street of the Images, fondly kissing him from time to time. That he even desired illicit relations with his own mother, and was kept from it by her enemies, who feared that such a relationship might give the reckless and insolent woman too great influence, was notorious, especially after he added to his concubines a courtesan who was said to look very like Agrippina. Even before that, so they say, whenever he rode in a litter with his mother, he had incestuous relations with her, which were betrayed by the stains on his clothing. --Suetonius, Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Nero

Cassius Dio Cocceianus

Cassius Dio (Books 61–63)

Cassius Dio was the son of Cassius Apronianus, a Roman senator. He passed the greater part of his life in public service. He was a senator under Commodus and governor of Smyrna after the death of Septimius Severus; and afterwards suffect consul around 205, as also proconsul in Africa and Pannonia.

Dio, also fearing future readers would assume bias, claims an impartial yet personal view in his works.

Philostratus

Philostratus II Life of Apollonius Tyana (Books 4–5)

Nero and religion

Jewish tradition

At the end of 66, conflict broke out between Greeks and Jews in Jerusalem and Caesarea. According to a Jewish legend in the Talmud (tractate Gitin 56a-b) [2], Nero came to Jerusalem and told his men to fire arrows in all four directions. All the arrows landed in the city. He then asked a passing child to repeat the verse he had learned that day (a common Talmudic method of telling the future). "I will lay my vengeance upon Edom by the hand of my people Israel," (Ez. 25,14) said the child. Nero became terrified, realizing that God wanted the Temple in Jerusalem to be destroyed, but would punish him if it were. Nero said, "He desires to lay waste his House and to lay the blame on me." Nero fled to Rome and converted to Judaism to avoid such retribution.<ref>The great sage Reb Meir Baal HaNess, a prominent supporter of Bar Kokhba's rebellion against Roman rule, the Talmud adds, is a descendant of him</ref> Titus was then dispatched to put down the rebellion—this led to the wholesale massacre of many Jews, the destruction of Jerusalem (the last remnants of the insurrection died at the stronghold of Masada).

The Jewish tradition reconciles this view of Nero with that of Roman historians by alleging that Roman historians could not abide the idea of a Roman emperor converting to Judaism, and therefore made up the story of his insanity and subsequent suicide.<ref name="100lives">Canning, J. (1985). 100 Great Lives of Antiquity. Guild Publishing London. 213-219.</ref>

Christian tradition

Because of Tacitus's claim about Nero blaming the fire on Christians, Christian tradition paints Nero as a first persecutor of Christians and the killer of Peter and Paul.

The Bible gives no indication on how or when Peter or Paul died. The Bishop Eusebius of Caesarea (275-339) was the first to write that Paul was beheaded during the reign of Nero<ref>Eusebius, Ecclesiastical History II.25</ref>[3]. Yet, other accounts have Paul traveling to Spain during this period.<ref>in the apocryphal Acts of Peter, in the First Epistle of Clement 5:6, and in The Muratorian Fragment</ref> Peter is first said to have been crucified upside down in Rome by Nero in the apocryphal Acts of Peter (c. 200 C.E) [4]. The story ends with Paul still alive and Nero abiding by God's command to not persecute any more Christians.

New Testament

Some religious scholars, such as Delbert Hillers (John Hopkins University) of the American Schools of Oriental Research and the editors of the Oxford & Harper Collins translations, contend that the number 666 in the Book of Revelation is a code for Nero,<ref>Hillers, Delbert, “Rev. 13, 18 and a scroll from Murabba’at”, Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research 170 (1963) 65.</ref> a view that is also supported in Roman Catholic Biblical commentaries.<ref>The New Jerome Biblical Commentary. Ed. Raymond E. Brown, Joseph A. Fitzmyer, and Roland E. Murphy. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1990. 1009 </ref><ref>http://catholic-resources.org/Bible/Apocalyptic.htm The Book of Revelation, Apocalyptic Literature, and Millennial Movements, Prof. Felix Just, S.J., Ph.D., University of San Francisco, USF Jesuit Community</ref>

Later Christian writers

Main article: Number of the Beast

Sibylline Oracles, Book 3, allegedly written before Nero's time, prophesies about the Anti-Christ and identifies him with Nero. However, it was actually written long after him and this identification was in any case rejected by Irenaeus in Against Heresies, Book 5, 27–30. They represent the mid-point in the change between the New Testament's identification of the past (Nero) or current (Domitian) anti-Christ, and later Christian writers' concern with the future anti-Christ. One of these later writers is Commodianus whose Institutes, 1.41, states that the future anti-Christ will be Nero returned from hell.

Nero in post-ancient culture

Nero in medieval and Renaissance literature

Usually as a stock exemplar of vice or a bad ruler

In the Golden Legend, and its apocryphal account of his forcing Seneca the Younger's suicide, where they meet face to face on this occasion.
In Geoffrey Chaucer's Canterbury Tales, The Monk's Prologue and Tale
Giovanni Boccaccio's Concerning the Falls of Illustrious Men
Matthew Gwinn wrote a play on him entitled Nero in 1603 [5].

Nero in modern culture

Main article: Nero in popular culture

Notes

External links

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