Forced disappearance
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
- "Desaparecidos" redirects here. For the American musical band, see Desaparecidos (band).
- "Disappear" redirects here. For the INXS song, see Disappear (INXS song). For other uses of "Disappear", see Disappear (disambiguation).
A forced disappearance occurs when an organization forces a person to vanish from public view, either by murder or by simple sequestration. The victim is first kidnapped, then illegally detained in concentration camps, often tortured, and finally executed and their corpse hidden. In Spanish, "disappeared people" are called "desaparecidos", a term which specifically refers to the mostly South American victims of state terrorism during the 1970s and the 1980s, in particular concerning Operation Condor.
According to the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court, which entered into force on July 1, 2002, "forced disappearances" qualify as a crime against humanity, which thus cannot be subject to statute of limitation.
Typically, a murder will be surreptitious, with the body disposed of in such a way as to never be found. The person simply vanishes. The party committing the murder has deniability, as there is no dead body to show that the victim is actually dead. Furthermore, the perpetrators of disappearance often go to great lengths to obscure or eliminate all mention of the disappeared, by altering the historical record and encouraging the silence of surviving relatives. In Chile and Argentina, for example, the infamous "death flights" were used during operation Condor by the military juntas to dispose of the victims' bodies at sea. Since the bodies couldn't be found decades later, those responsible for human right violations claimed that the statute of limitations impeded any trial. However, in Chile, judge Juan Guzmán Tapia would create, by jurisprudence, the felony of "permanent sequestration": he argued that since the bodies couldn't be found, the statute of limitations couldn't be applied since the sequestration continued and was still in effect. Juan Guzmán thus ensured the possibility of bringing to trial some of the Chilean military men involved, even though the amnesty law of 1978 continues to apply, since the democratic government has not yet abrogated it.
Contents |
[edit] Linguistic considerations
In the case of forced disappearance the word "disappear", which is normally an intransitive verb, becomes transitive. Therefore, victims are referred to as the "disappeared". They have been "disappeared" by whomever, and those responsible are charged with "disappearing" him or her. Some people uncomfortable with the passive use of this term prefer to say that someone "was made to disappear". Both phrases are usually considered doublespeak euphemisms. The verb desaparecer, like its English translation disappear, is grammatically intransitive, but it is used in this sense to imply causativity (so desaparecidos are people who were "made to disappear").
[edit] Well known incidents
The term desaparecidos specifically refers to South America's "Dirty War", particularly in Chile, Argentina and Uruguay, which cooperated together, along with other dictatorships, in Operation Condor. However, the term may be used in other contexts. NGOs such as Amnesty International or Human Rights Watch recense in their annual report the number of forced disappearances cases.
[edit] Islamic Republic of Iran
Following the Iran student riots in 1999, more than 70 students disappeared. In addition, to an estimated 1200-1400 detained, the "whereabouts and condition" of five students named by Human Rights Watch remained unknown<ref>New Arrests And "Disappearances" Of Iranian Students</ref>. The United Nations has also reported other disappearances<ref>UN experts urge Iran to observe human rights norms in case of dead journalist</ref>. Dissident writers have been the target of disappearances<ref>WAN protests disappearances in Iran</ref>.
[edit] Mafia
In what is probably the best known non-governmental case, the mafia is said to have "disappeared" U.S. trade-unionist Jimmy Hoffa, doing away with his body in a way that ensured it was never found.
[edit] Balochistan, Pakistan
According to a leading Pakistani newspaper, over 3,000 political prisoners, mainly activists and political opponents of General Musharraf, are being illegally detained in camps run by the Army and Intelligence Agencies in Balochistan.
Daily Times quotes: Balochistan continues to remain the hub of illegal detentions and mysterious disappearances of political activists and family members of political leaders.
According to unofficial estimates, around 3,000 political activists, relatives of political leaders and ordinary citizens of Balochistan are being detained by intelligence agencies. Relatives of those detained usually have no information on the whereabouts of their loved ones. The government has also not registered any cases against the detained suspects.
Government sources said that scores of suspected terrorists, mainly Baloch supporters of the Balochistan Liberation Army, are in government custody due to their alleged involvement in militant activity in the province.
Some of these suspects have been missing for years.
"My uncle, Ali Asghar Bungulzai, 38, went missing on October 18, 2001," Nasruallah Baloch, the nephew of the missing tailor, told Daily Times. "Soon after his abduction, intelligence officials came to our house and admitted that Ali was in their custody," he said, adding that the family was told that Ali was being interrogated regarding some ‘sensitive issues' and would soon be released.
"But now the same agency denies abducting Ali. They say he is no longer in their custody. We don't know where he is," he added.
Hafeez Baloch's brother Hafiz Saeed Bungulzai went missing on July 4, 2003. Baloch said that an intelligence agency submitted before the Balochistan High Court (BHC) that his brother was being interrogated but they still did not know where he is. "They did not even allow my mother to meet Saeed despite BHC directives," Baloch said.
"We were told that Saeed was in the custody of government agencies but he has not been sentenced by a court of law," he said. Human rights activists have expressed agreement with an Amnesty International report saying "the clandestine nature of the detentions means it is impossible to know how many are still being held in secret locations".
Zahoor Ahmed Shahwani, president of the Balochistan chapter of the Human Rights Commission of Pakistan (HRCP), said, "The government does have the right to round up suspects, but is required to do so through the proper channels. Cases should be registered and suspects produced in a court of law. None of these procedures are being followed".
The extra-judicial arrests also include journalists and relatives of political leaders. "Such tactics are applied by the government to emotionally blackmail politicians and divert attention from their political struggle," Kachkol Baloch, leader of the opposition in the Balochistan Assembly, told Daily Times.
Munir Mengal, the managing director of an under production Balochi television channel, Baloch Voice, has also been reported missing. Zakia Karim, Mengal's sister, said that no human rights or journalists' group has protested her brother's ‘abduction by the intelligence agencies', which took place on April 4 at the Karachi airport.
"He was returning from Bahrain when he was whisked away by agency officials at the Karachi Airport. We don't have the slightest idea where he is right now," Zakia said.
Samiullah Baloch, 24, the younger brother of Baloch Senator Sanaullah Baloch, of the Balochistan National Party (BNP), went missing on July 16. His whereabouts are still unknown.
Bilal Bugti, the younger brother of Jamhoori Watan Party (JWP) Secretary General Agha Shahid Bugti, and Murtaza Bugti, the son of Balochistan's first finance minister, Ahmed Nawaz Bugti, were also reported missing in July.
Baloch nationalists claim that around 4,000 Baloch youthsbb are presently in the custody of intelligence agencies.
Government sources said these figures were exaggerated. "The government has a number of people in custody for interrogation purposes given but they don't include innocent people. Anyone who is proved innocent will be allowed to go home," a government official told Daily Times.
An HRCP report published in January 2006 expressed deep concern at the increasing number of disappearances and instances of torture by security and intelligence agencies. The report noted that the Interior Minister was quoted in the press as acknowledging 4,000 arrests in connection with the Balochistan situation. "The charges against a number of these persons have not been disclosed to their families. In some cases it is not known where they are being detained, and furthermore the government has also not disclosed the identities of persons arrested during these operations. Other government members have given contradictory accounts of the number of persons arrested in Balochistan," it said.
"No one knows why they were picked up and from where to bring them back," said Malik Zahoor Shahwani, president of the Balochistan chapter of the HRCP. "Several households in Balochistan have sob stories of their beloved ones who have gone missing for many years," he added.
Lack of protest
In a recent report Amnesty International said the phenomenon of "enforced disappearance", rare in Pakistan before 2001, had become common even outside the context of the "war on terror". People from different backgrounds, including Baloch nationalists and Sindhi leaders, were being subjected to enforced disappearance, the report noted and expressed concern at the "very limited" protest in Pakistan against these disappearances and other violations in the "war on terror". Civil society, political parties and the media had, by and large, ignored the issue, Amnesty said.
The families of the missing persons have resorted to all types of protest demanding that they be freed but to no avail. For instance, eight children, all under 20 years of age, of a missing tailor master, Ali Asghar Bungulzai, observed a hunger strike in Quetta, the Baloch capital, for 371 days after the disappearance of their father. They marched to the Governor's House and the Chief Minister's House but received no justice.
Bungulzai's is a tale that suggests how freely intelligence agencies operate in Balochistan. His elder brother, Dad Mohammad, told Frontline that Bungulzai, 38, was first whisked away on June 1, 2000, on Quetta's Saraib Road. He was released after 22 days, only to be picked up again on October 18, 2001. Said Nasrullah, Bungulzai's nephew: "Men, clad in plain clothes, came in three vehicles whose windows were covered with dark curtains and identified themselves as personnel from the Inter-Services Intelligence [ISI]. They said they had some work to do with him and pushed him into one of the vehicles."
Bungulzai's family contacted the then Quetta Corps Commander, Abdul Qadir Baloch, for help. On May 15, 2002, said Dad Mohammad, two intelligence officials informed the family that Bungulzai was safe and sound in their custody and would be released soon. On December 27 the family members, accompanied by Hafiz Hussain Ahmed, a leading politician, met Brigadier Siddiq of the ISI. "We had about 10 meetings with the Brigadier, who kept on assuring us that my brother would be released soon," Dad Mohammad said. He claimed the family received Rs.25,000 from the agency, apparently to keep quiet.
Now ISI officials deny Bungulzai is in their custody. His family feels betrayed. "If he was not in their custody, they should not have given assurances to us," said Ghulam Farroq, Bungulzai's 20-year-old son.
Among those missing are people of different age groups and varied professions. Haji Jan Mohmmad Marri, 80, a Marri tribal elder whose family said he was in poor health, has been missing since July 6, 2005. His family petitioned the Balochistan High Court, but to no effect so far.
Munir Mengal, managing director of a to-be-launched Balochi channel, Baloch Voice, was whisked away from Karachi airport on April 4 on his return to Pakistan from Bahrain. Zakia Karim, Mengal's sister, said her brother's perceived fault was to establish a channel to promote Balochi culture. Mengal continues to be missing and is apparently in the custody of the intelligence agencies. His family receives constant warnings to remain tight-lipped or "pay a heavy price for their protest".
In its report, the HRCP noted that among the most disturbing accounts of disappearances was that of 18 labour leaders of Pakistan Petroleum Limited (PPL) on December 9, 2005, from Karachi. They had been invited by the PPL management for talks on the union's demands. On December 6, they reached Karachi and were put up in Regent Plaza Hotel by the management. On December 7 and 8 they held talks with the management. They were asleep in their rooms when they were rounded up by security forces, accompanied by plainclothes persons, around 2 a.m. on December 9.
The HRCP demanded an inquiry into the disappearances in Balochistan to bring the perpetrators to book. It also demanded that the government close down all places of irregular detention and rein in intelligence agencies.
Linked to insurgency
The disappearances, human rights activists believe, are linked to the ongoing insurgency in the province. Family members of the top Baloch leadership, too, have not been spared. Murtaza Bugti, younger brother of Agha Shahid Bugti, general secretary of the Jamori Watan Party (JWP), his cousin Bilal Bugti, and Samiullah Baloch, younger brother of Sana Baloch, information secretary of the Balochistan National Party (BNP), are all missing. "The government wants to blackmail us and undermine our struggle for the attainment of Baloch rights," says Sana Baloch.
The disappearances have continued after the killing of the tribal leader and JWP chief Nawab Akbar Khan Bugti on August 26. Leader of the Opposition in the Balochistan Assembly Kachkol Ali Baloch said such "cowardly moves" by the government were unlikely to ease tensions in Balochistan. He added: "The disappearance of thousands of Balochs is certain to further poison the young Baloch mind against Pakistan.
[edit] Nazi Germany
During World War II, Nazi Germany set up secret police forces including branches of the Gestapo in occupied countries, which they used to hunt down known or suspected dissidents or partisans. This tactic was given the name Nacht und Nebel (Night and Fog) to describe those who disappeared after being arrested by Nazi forces without any warning. The Nazis also applied this policy against political opponents within Germany. Most victims were killed on the spot or sent to concentration camps, with the full expectation that they would be killed.
[edit] Northern Ireland's "Troubles"
In "The Troubles" of Northern Ireland dozens of people on all sides were disappeared, the most infamous case being that of mother of ten, Jean McConville, who was abducted, tortured and murdered by the Provisional IRA in 1972. She had been accused of being an informer. Her body was discovered by accident in 2003. Another well known case is that of Columba McVeigh, a seventeen year old catholic who was murdered by the IRA in 1975 on suspicion of being an informer.
[edit] Operation Condor and Argentina's Dirty War
During Argentina's "Dirty War" and operation Condor, political dissidents were forced to jump out of airplanes far out over the Atlantic Ocean, leaving no trace of their passing. Without any dead bodies, the government could deny they had been killed. People murdered in this way (and in others) are today referred to as "the disappeared" (los desaparecidos), and this is where the modern use of the term derives. An activist group called "Mothers of the Plaza de Mayo", formed by mothers of those victims of the dictatorship, were the inspiration for a song by Irish rock band U2, Mothers of the Disappeared (see also the Valech Report for Chile). Rubén Blades also composed a song called "Desaperecidos" in honor of those political dissidents. The Mexican rock group Mana covered the song in their album "Mana: Unplugged." Boris Weisfeiler is thought to have disappeared near Colonia Dignidad, a German colony founded by Nazi Paul Schäfer in Chile which was used as a detention center by the DINA, the secret police.
Between 1976 and 1983, in Argentina, it is thought that up to 30,000 dissidents (9,000 according to the official report by the CONADEP [1]), and people connected to them, were subject to forced disappearance under the military junta that was in power. From bits and pieces of information collected from military officers involved in the so-called "Dirty War", many victims were sedated and dumped from airplanes into the Río de la Plata (today these are called vuelos de la muerte, flights of death). Other people were held in torture and detention centres; the most notorious one was the Navy's Mechanics Training School (ESMA) in the Núñez district of Buenos Aires.
Many women gave birth in captivity, and their children were given illegally in adoption to families of military or police personnel, or their friends, while their mothers were killed soon after. The task of locating these children and restoring their lost identity has been going on ever since the restoration of democracy in 1983, and has been key in unveiling the atrocities committed by some people otherwise protected by the laws that mandated an end to the trials of former military government officials, or by the pardon granted by President Carlos Menem in 1999, since appropriating children from their mothers is a crime that lies outside the scope of military procedures, and thus also outside any kind of amnesty law or pardon that implies orders in a military context.
[edit] Soviet Union
| Image:The Commissar Vanishes 1.jpg |
| Image:The Commissar Vanishes 2.jpg |
| Vanished commissar: Nikolai Yezhov retouched |
The damnatio memoriae method of disappearance was practiced in the Soviet Union. When an important political figure was convicted, e.g., during the Great Purge, artists would retouch them out of photographs; books, records, and histories would be recalled, rewritten, or redacted; pictures, busts, and statues would be taken down; people would be discouraged from talking about them; and the government would never mention them again. It was as if the disappeared had never existed. Notable examples range from prominent Russian revolutionaries who took part in the Russian Revolution, but disagreed with Bolsheviks, to some of the most devoted Stalinists (e.g., Nikolai Yezhov) who fell into disfavor.
The real disappearance was a special clause of conviction, "without the right to correspondence". It turned out that in many this phrase covered the execution of the convicted, while the sentence stated, e.g., "10 years of labor camps without the right to correspondence". In cases of tens of thousands people their actual fate had became known only after the destalinization of 1950s.
[edit] United States' War on Terror
Various press reports, including allegations by Pulitzer Prize winning journalist Dana Priest, accuse the United States of disappearing over one-hundred suspected terrorists to black sites throughout Eastern Europe or to foreign countries known to torture suspects for information as part of the United States' War on Terrorism. The practice, sometimes known as extraordinary rendition, has been subject to intense scrutiny by the world press and some European governments. Irene Khan of Amnesty International criticized the practice in a 2005 speech in front of the Foreign Press Association:
- "Guantanamo has become the gulag of our times, entrenching the notion that people can be detained without any recourse to the law. If Guantanamo evokes images of Soviet repression, "ghost detainees" – or the incommunicado detention of unregistered detainees - bring back the practice of "disappearances" so popular with Latin American dictators in the past." [2]
In September 2006 the Bush administration announced it had moved 14 secretly held "detainees" from CIA prisons at undisclosed locations to the Guantanamo Bay military prison. However, no data were provided as to how many were detained overall, and how many remained. [3]
Not only suspected terrorists are forced to disappear, but also US citizens and even US soldiers are said to be held in black sites. It is said they are held there for political reasons. Also reasons as knowing too much classified information have been mentioned. This may be supposed to have started in the late 1930's with US citizens who had been labeled as communists or spies. There is a big difference between the 1930's up through the McCarthy period and today, however. In the earlier witch-hunts, people lost their jobs or were otherwise publically hounded overseas - for example, entertainer Charlie Chaplin and physicist David Bohm left the U.S. Both ended in England, the latter relocating in stages, via Brazil and Israel. J. Robert Oppenheimer lost his job in the bomb projects. Today's forced disappearances are hardly public at all. The person is "disappeared" to an undisclosed location, often without announcement. For the disappearance of Associated Press photographer/reporter Bilal Hussein see [4]
[edit] Algeria
During the Algerian Civil War, which began in 1992 as Islamist guerrillas attacked the military government which had annulled an Islamist electoral victory, thousands of people were forcibly disappeared. Disappearances continued up to the late 1990s, but thereafter dropped of sharply with the decline in violence from c:a 1997. Some of the disappeared were kidnapped or killed by the guerrillas, but others are presumed to have been taken by state security services. This latter group has become the most controversial. Their exact numbers remain disputed, but the government has acknowledged a figure of just over 6000 disappeared, now presumed dead. Opposition sources claim the real number is closer to 17,000. (The war claimed a total toll of 150-200,000 deaths). In 2005, an controversial amnesty law was approved by the government, which among other things granted financial compensation to families of disappeared, but also effectively ended the police investigations into the crimes.[5]
[edit] Western Sahara
Further information: Human rights in Western Sahara and Years of Lead
Since Morocco invaded Western Sahara in 1975, somewhere around 1,500 suspected Polisario-sympathizers and other independence activists have been abducted. In several cases, whole families were taken in retaliation for Sahrawis joining the Polisario forces in Tindouf, Algeria. The disappeared were subjected to severe torture, and held in secret detention camps such as Tazmamart where many died due to poor conditions or lack of medical treatment. In the early 90s, hundreds of Sahrawis were released and others proclaimed dead after the signing of a cease-fire between Morocco and the Polisario, but approximately 500 remain unaccounted for. Many of the released prisoners have since been re-arrested for protesting their detention.
[edit] Egypt
In 2004, EOHR reported that it had been following 59 cases of disappearance within the country since 1992. Domestic human rights organizations provided names to the UN Working Group on Enforced and Involuntary Disappearances; the government did not respond to the EOHR report.
[edit] Reda Helal
AKA Reda Mohammed Helal The deputy editor of Al Ahram newspaper (at the time he disappeared on Monday 11th August 2003), and a founding member of CPS Cairo Peace Society (CPS), a Copenhagen Declaration support group; Reda Helal was disappeared when he went back from the newspaper's office to his home in Kasr El Aini hospital street in downtown Cairo, while this street is one of the most secured streets in the Egyptian capital, for the huge number of police officials and secret service spies distributed in it, as it is the location of the Arab League headquarters, Egyptian Foreign Ministry,American Embassy, and the Egyptian Museum. Helal's family presented a complaint about his kidnapping on Monday 11th August 2003 to Sayyeda Zeinab police station. Human rights groups and activists and a number of journalists pointed the incident to the government.
[edit] Disappearances in human rights law
In international human rights law, disappearances at the hand of the state have been codified as enforced or forced disappearances. For example, the Rome Statute establishing the International Criminal Court defines enforced disappearance as a crime against humanity, and the practice is specifically addressed by the OAS's Inter-American Convention on Forced Disappearance of Persons.
Disappearances work on two levels: not only do they effectively silence those opposition members who have disappeared, they also sow uncertainty and terror in the wider community in general, thus silencing other opposition voices, current and potential alike. Disappearances entail the violation of a series of basic human rights and fundamental freedoms. For the disappeared person, these include the right to liberty, the right to personal security and humane treatment (including freedom from torture), the right to a fair trial, to legal counsel, and to equal protection under the law, the right of presumption of innocence, et cetera. The families, who often spend the rest of their lives in searches for remains of the disappeared, also become victims of the disappearance's effects.
[edit] Metaphorical use
The idea of forced disappearance, along with the transitive verb "disappeared", have entered the popular lexicon of the United States, and are now routinely extended to political or social commentary. Upper mid-level government officials who are unpopular, or who have spoken publicly against their superiors are frequently disappeared (e.g., former FEMA Director Michael D. Brown or former Secretary of the Treasury Paul O'Neill). Embarrassing documents that are supposedly lost in transit or otherwise unavailable are also said to have been disappeared.
[edit] Film
- Imagining Argentina (2003). Directed by Christopher Hampton.
- La historia oficial (1985). Directed by Luis Puenzo.
- Missing (1982). Directed by Costa-Gavras.
[edit] Literature
- V For Vendetta. Written by Alan Moore, Illustrated by David Lloyd.
- 1984. Written by George Orwell
[edit] External links
- Desaparecidos.org (in English & Spanish)
- "The Commissar Vanishes" — Nikolai Yezhov airbrushed out of a picture with Stalin;
- The International Commission on Missing Persons
- Kausfiles, February 14, 2004 (includes example of metaphorical usage of the term in U.S. political discourse)
- The Vanished Gallery
- University of Ulster's CAIN website page on The Disappeared
[edit] See also
- Argentine Dirty War
- Black sites
- Comisión Nacional sobre la Desaparición de Personas
- Command responsibility
- Damnatio memoriae
- Extraordinary rendition
- Ghost detainee
- International Day of the Disappeared
- Missing person
- Mothers of the Plaza de Mayo, an Argentine activist group formed by mothers of desaparecidos
- Nacht und Nebel
- Secret police
- Selective assassination
- Unpersonde:Desaparecidos
es:Desaparición forzada eo:Malaperigo id:Desaparecidos it:Desaparecidos he:דספרסידוס nl:Desaparecidos pl:Desaparecidos
Categories: Articles lacking sources from December 2006 | All articles lacking sources | Imprisonment and detention | Counter-terrorism | Crimes | Emergency laws | Extrajudicial prisoners of the United States | History of Argentina | History of Chile | History of Morocco | History of South America | History of Uruguay | Human rights abuses | Kidnappings | Murder | Nazism | Operation Condor | Political repression | Anti-terrorism policy of the United States
