Overseas expansion of the United States
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United States overseas expansion follows the expansion of U.S. frontiers on the North American continent (see Mexican-American War, War of 1812, and Territorial acquisitions of the United States). The overseas expansion of the United States into Puerto Rico and the Pacific occurred as a consequence of the Guano Islands Act, Spanish American War, the colonization of the American Samoa, and the annexation of the Republic of Hawaii at the request of the then president of Hawaii, Sanford Dole. The U.S. Virgin Islands were purchased from Denmark in 1917.
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[edit] Background
A variety of factors coincided during this period to bring about an accelerated pace of U.S. expansionism:
- Wars such as the Spanish-American War that led to liberation and acquisition of former colonies of foreign states
- The industry and agriculture of the United States had grown beyond its need for consumption. Powerful business and political figures such as James G. Blaine believed that foreign markets were essential to further economic growth, promoting a more aggressive foreign policy.
- The prevalence of racism, notably Ernst Haeckel's "biogenic law," John Fiske's conception of Anglo-Saxon racial superiority, and Josiah Strong's call to "civilize and Christianize" - all manifestations of a growing Social Darwinism and racism in some schools of American political thought.
- The development of Frederick Jackson Turner's "Frontier Thesis," which stated that the American frontier was the wellspring of its creativity and virility as a civilization. As the Western United States was gradually becoming less of a frontier and more of a part of America, many believed that overseas expansion was vital to maintaining the American spirit.
- The publication of Alfred T. Mahan's The Influence of Sea Power upon History in 1890, which advocated three factors crucial to The United States' ascension to the position of "world power": the construction of a canal in South America (later influencing the decision for the construction of the Panama Canal), expansion of the U.S. naval power, and the establishment of a trade/military post in the Pacific, so as to stimulate trade with China. This publication had a strong influence on the idea that a strong navy stimulated trade, and influenced policy makers such as Theodore Roosevelt and other proponents of a large navy.
[edit] U.S. past and present territorial possessions
In the period between the mid-1800s until the mid-1900s the United States annexed a number of overseas islands and territories. The following areas have at one time or another been under the control of the United States of America and have not been fully incorporated into the country as states.
- Puerto Rico (1898-1952, obtained by the 1898 Treaty of Paris with Spain following the Spanish-American War, now a US commonwealth)
- Guam (1898-, obtained by the 1898 Treaty of Paris with Spain following the Spanish-American War)
- Cuba (1899-1902, 1906-1909, obtained by the 1898 Treaty of Paris with Spain following the Spanish-American War) Now independent; however, Guantanamo Bay remains under the control of the U.S. military
- Republic of the Philippines (1898-1946, acquired by the 1898 Treaty of Paris with Spain and now independent through the Philippine Independence Act of 1935
- American Samoa (1900-) Acquired as colony and established by Treaty
- U.S. Virgin Islands (1917-, purchased from Denmark)
- Panama Canal Zone (leased from 1903-1979 and now part of Panama)
- Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands (1944-1990) (Trusteeship assigned by the UN comprises the modern nations of the Marshall Islands, the Federated States of Micronesia, and Palau, as well the Northern Mariana Islands, a US commonwealth.)
[edit] Guano islands annexations
The Guano Islands Act was federal legislation passed by the U.S. Congress on August 18, 1856 enabling citizens of the United States to take possession of islands containing guano deposits. More than 50 islands were eventually claimed. Of those remaining unquestionably under U.S. control due to this act alone are Baker Island, Jarvis Island, Howland Island, and Johnston Atoll. Other islands could be included, depending on opinion. Some claims have never been relinquished but are not recognized by the US or the party currently claiming control.
Others are no longer considered United States territory. Possession of Navassa Island is currently disputed with Haiti. An even more complicated case probably unresolved until now seems to be the Serranilla Bank and the Bajo Nuevo Bank. In 1971, the U.S. and Honduras signed a treaty recognizing Honduran sovereignty over the Swan Islands.
[edit] Annexation of Hawaii
The Kingdom of Hawai'i was long an independent monarchy in the mid-Pacific Ocean. During the 19th century, the first American missionaries and then American business interests began to play major roles in the islands. Most notable were the powerful fruit and sugarcane corporations such as the Hawaiian Pineapple Company, founded by James Dole, and an oligarchy known as the Big Five, which included Castle & Cooke, Alexander & Baldwin, C. Brewer & Co., Amfac and Theo H. Davies & Co..
After a coup financed and directed by American interests overthrew the monarchy's last native Hawaiian leader, isolationist Queen Lili'uokalani, the island became a republic in 1894. In 1898, the American president of the Republic of Hawai'i, Sanford Dole, James Dole's cousin, agreed to the Republic's annexation by the United States. The republic was dissolved in 1900 when the country became a territory of the US. Following voter approval of the Admission of Hawai'i Act, the Territory of Hawaii, on August 21, 1959, became the state of Hawai'i and the 50th state of the United States.
[edit] Annexation of Spanish Colonies following Spanish-American War
The Spanish-American War took place in 1898. The Treaty of Paris (1898), ended the Spanish-American war, giving the United States possession of the Philippines, Puerto Rico, Guam, and Cuba. After the war, the United States greatly increased its international power.
This era also saw the first scattered protests against American imperialism. Noted Americans such as Mark Twain spoke out forcefully against these ventures. Opponents of the war, including Twain and Andrew Carnegie, organized themselves into the American Anti-Imperialist League.
During this same period the American people continued to strongly chastise the European powers for their imperialism. The Second Boer War was especially unpopular in the United States and soured Anglo-American relations. The anti-imperialist press would often draw parallels between America in the Philippines and the British in the Second Boer War.
[edit] Guam
In Guam, settlement by foreign ethnic groups was small at first. After World War II showed the strategic value of the island, construction of a huge military base began along with a large influx of people from other parts of the world. Guam today has a very mixed population of 164,000. The indigenous Chamorros make up 37% of the population. The rest of the population consists mostly of Caucasians and Filipinos, with smaller groups of Chinese, Japanese, Koreans, Micronesians, Vietnamese and Indians. Guam today is almost totally Americanized. The situation is somewhat similar to that in Hawaii, but attempts to change Guam's status as an 'unincorporated' U.S. territory have yet to meet with success.
[edit] Philippines
In 1898, the United States lent strong support to Emilio Aguinaldo's native liberation movement and helped to defeat Spanish occupation forces. Aguinaldo and his supporters declared independence, but the U.S. reversed its policy and annexed the islands. The natives resisted, and the Philippine-American War ensued.
The Philippine-American War (1899 to 1913) is often cited as another instance of United States imperialism. While many Filipinos were initially delighted to be rid of the Spanish rule of the Philippines, the guerrilla fighters soon found that the Americans were not prepared to grant them much more autonomy than Spain had allowed. Thus, for the next 15 years, American forces engaged in a war in the jungles of the Philippines against the Filipino resistance. An estimated 200,000 Filipinos died from war, war induced famine, and conditions in American concentration camps. Some American soldiers participated in war crimes, including torture and killing POWs.
The Philippines became a U.S. colony in the fashion of Europe's New Imperialism, with benevolent colonial practices. The Philippines remained under U.S. or Japanese rule until after World War II. The English language was made compulsory, but the native Tagalog also gained official status in 1937. Both languages are official today. The Filipinos welcomed the American reconquest from Japan in 1944, and gained political independence, for the first time, in 1946.
[edit] Annexation of American Samoa
Germany, the United States, and Britain colonized the Samoan Islands. The nations came into conflict in the Second Samoan Civil War and the nations resolved their issues, establishing American Samoa as per the Treaty of Berlin, 1899. The US took control of its allotted region on June 7, 1900 with the Deed of Cession. American Samoa was under the control of the U.S. Navy from 1900 to 1951. From 1951 until 1977, Territorial Governors were appointed by the Secretary of the Interior. Immigration of Americans was never as strong as it was, for instance, in Hawaii; indigenous Samoans make up 89% of the population. The islands have been reluctant to separate from the US in any manner.
[edit] Annexation of U.S. Virgin Islands
In 1917, the United States purchased the former Danish Colony of St. Croix, St. John and St. Thomas, which is now the U.S. Virgin Islands. The United States purchased these islands because they feared that the islands might be seized as a submarine base during World War I. After a few months of negotiations, a sales price of $25 million was agreed. A referendum held in late 1916 confirmed the decision to sell by a wide margin. The deal was thus ratified and finalised on January 17, 1917, when the United States and Denmark exchanged their respective treaty ratifications. The U.S. took possession of the islands on March 31, 1917, when the territory was renamed the U.S. Virgin Islands. U.S. citizenship was granted to the inhabitants of the islands in 1927.
[edit] Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands
The Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands (TTPI) was a United Nations trust territory in Micronesia (western Pacific) administered by the United States from July 18, 1947, comprising the former League of Nations Mandate administered by Japan and taken by the U.S. in 1944. On October 21, 1986, the U.S. ended its administration of the Marshall Islands district. These islands are now republics that, in 1986, signed a Compact of Free Association with the U.S.
[edit] Overseas interventions
In addition to direct annexation of land, the United States has been involved in a number of covert and overt military interventions that have had the effect of expanding United States influence over the policies of foreign governments.
[edit] Interventions in Latin America
The early decades of the 20th century saw a great number of interventions in Latin America by the U.S. government, often under the Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine, and most often openly in aid of U.S. corporate interests. President William Howard Taft viewed "Dollar Diplomacy" as a way for American corporations to benefit while assisting in the national security goal of preventing European powers, above all the United Kingdom and Germany, from filling any possible financial or power vacuum.
- 1901: Platt Amendment renders Cuba a protectorate of the United States, putting severe restrictions on the Cuban government's financial freedom, granting the U.S. its base at Guantanamo Bay, and reserving the right of the U.S. to intervene in Cuban affairs. Cuba is also pressured to write the provisions of the Platt Amendment into its constitution.
- 1903: US customs receivership in Haiti following collapse of Haitian government and threats by France and Italy to intervene to collect their debts.
- 1903: U.S. backed independence of Panama from Colombia in order to build the Panama Canal; Hay-Bunau Varilla Treaty
- 30 Mar 1903 - 28 Mar 1905: U.S. occupation of the (former Spanish colony) Dominican Republic
- 1904: Theodore Roosevelt announces his "Corollary" to the Monroe Doctrine, stating that the United States would intervene to protect Washington's interests in the Western Hemisphere should Latin American governments prove incapable or unstable.
- 28 March 1905 - 1941: U.S. protectorate of Dominican Republic
- 1906-1909 U.S. reassume military rule over Cuba under Governor Charles Magoon.
- 1909: forced resignation of President José Santos Zelaya after triumph of U.S.-backed rebels in Nicaragua
- 1914 to 1916: Mexico conflict, including U.S. troops occupying northern portion of the country and port city of Veracruz
- 1923 to 1928 (Nicaragua) Marines occupied main cities, Their purpose was to provide stabilization to the government. There was a period of a few months between 1925 and 1926 when the Marines left but were back for the same reason.
[edit] Interventions in Asia
While American intervention had begun earlier with Matthew Perry forcibly opening Japan to the West with the Convention of Kanagawa in 1854, this period saw the United States expand its presence in Asia. The U.S. pushed through the Open Door Policy that guaranteed equal economic access to China. It also vigorously acquired small islands in the Pacific, mostly to be used as coaling stations.
Throughout the later half of the 19th century, China was divided into "spheres of influence"-areas to which a foreign power (Austria, France, Germany, Great Britain, Italy, Japan, and Russia) were given exclusive trading rights or even the territory itself as the result of treaties. The United States, having recently gained the Philippines in the Spanish-American War and thereby becoming a player in East Asia, felt impeded by these "spheres of influence". In an effort to equalize trade, John Hay, Secretary of State at the time (under William McKinley), sent letters to European leaders suggesting an "open door" policy in China, one that would grant equivalent trading rights to all powers inside the spheres of influence. The proposal was gently rejected. Following the Boxer Rebellion, John Hay called again for an expanded "open door" policy effective throughout China, not just within "spheres of influence". The United States and the European powers agreed to preserve Chinese independence and government.
More intense was the occupation of Japan from 1945 to 1951, during which time the US occupation force, led by General Douglas MacArthur staged a dramatic restructuring of Japanese society in order to prevent the nation from re-emerging as a military threat. (See also Japanese nationalism.) Although the occupation officially ended in the 1950's, American troops remain today in bases in Japan.
[edit] Interventions in Europe
After helping the Allies in defeateating Nazi Germany, the United States occupied the southern portion of the Western sector of Germany (which later became part of West Germany) for ten years (1945 to 1955). During the 1960s and 1970s, it became fashionable to view the Soviet Empire in eastern Europe as comparable to the American/British domination of western Europe. It was frequently argued that, through economic and military pressure, the United States pursued hegemony just as aggressively as the Soviet Union. The post-revisionist school, which, since the fall of the USSR, has come to dominate the study of Cold War history, has rejected this view, arguing that the full extent of Soviet aggression has become apparent as a result of the opening of the Kremlin's archives. (See historiography of the Cold War.)
[edit] Interventions in the Middle East
After World War II, with the continued rise in the importance of oil to the world economy, the United States increased its interest in intervention in the Middle East. While it had no formal colonies, it had strong influence in several countries including Israel, Iran under the Shah, and various Gulf states. Since 2001, and the September 11 attacks, the U.S. has had a large number of troops in Afghanistan. Since the U.S.-led invasion in March 2003, it has had an even larger number in Iraq. At least some U.S. war planners were interested in U.S. military domination of the oil-rich Gulf region, the world's top supply of this most important resource, according to U.S. General Jay Garner, who was in charge of planning and administering post-war reconstruction in Iraq, explaining that the U.S. occupation of Iraq was comparable to the Philippine model: "Look back on the Philippines around the turn of the 20th century: they were a coaling station for the navy, and that allowed us to keep a great presence in the Pacific. That's what Iraq is for the next few decades: our coaling station that gives us great presence in the Middle East."<ref>Interview on National Journal, 2004, archived http://www.independent-media.tv/item.cfm?fmedia_id=5819&fcategory_desc=Under%20Reported, http://www.alternet.org/story/17923/</ref>
Some U.S. war planners are interested in long term bases in Iraq to project American power to the Middle East. "One of the most important things we can do right now is start getting basing rights with (the Iraqi authorities)", "I hope they're there a long time....And I think we'll have basing rights in the north and basing rights in the south ... we'd want to keep at least a brigade", Garner added.[1] Also, a report of the U.S. House of Representatives accompanying emergency spending legislation for U.S. military bases in Iraq stated that the money allocated was "of a magnitude normally associated with permanent bases".<ref>BBC News, March 30, 2006, http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/4834032.stm</ref>
Declassified British Cabinet papers, published in The Guardian in 1994, indicate the possibility that the CIA and MI6 both provided backing for the 1963 military coup of Iraqi Colonel Abdul Salam Arif which overthrew Brigadier General Abdul Karim Qassim. Qassim had attempted to nationalize the Iraq Petroleum Company, of which U.S. companies were major shareholders, and in order to assert Iraqi rights to the territory of Kuwait. Following the coup, the new Iraqi government abandoned both of these policies disapproved of by the governments of both the U.S. and the United Kingdom (see also history of Iraq) After the government of Rahman Arif took power, the U.S. again backed a coup in Iraq, bringing the Baath Party to power in 1968, <ref> (March 14 2003) "A Tyrant 40 Years in the Making". New York Times.</ref> with Saddam Hussein eventually taking the helm. Similar tactics were used by the United States in Iran in 1953 to topple the democractially-elected Mossadegh government and to install the Shah dictatorship, see Operation Ajax, and in Chile in 1973 to install Augusto Pinochet after the overthrow of the democratically-elected government of Dr. Salvador Allende (see Chilean coup of 1973). In these cases U.S. interest lay in maintaining control over Iran's oil and Chile's copper.
[edit] Cultural imperialism
Since the end of the World War II, the United States has been world dominant in most cultural industries. US movies, television, food, and music are popular throughout the world. Thus the US has often been accused of cultural imperialism, a form of expansion overseas certainly more subtle than military conquest but perhaps with similar problems.[citation needed]
[edit] See also
- History of United States continental expansion
- History of the United States (1865-1918)
- United States territorial acquisitions
- Historic regions of the United States
- List of U.S. foreign interventions since 1945
- American Empire
- Manifest Destiny
- Spread-eagleism
- American Exceptionalism
- Black Legend (in relation to the Spanish-American War)
- Project for the New American Century
- New Imperialism and the emerging empires.
[edit] Views on United States imperialism
- Tariq Ali, author of Clash of the Fundamentalisms (2002)
- Noam Chomsky, author of Hegemony or Survival (2003)
- Niall Ferguson, author of Colossus: the Price of America's Empire (2004)
- Walter LaFeber
- Goldwin Smith, author of Commonwealth or Empire? (1902)
- Howard Zinn
[edit] External links
- Judis, John B.. "Imperial Amnesia". Foreign Policy. (Alternate link)
- On the Coming Decline and Fall of the US Empire. transnational.org. Retrieved on 2006-07-30.
- Basic Statistics of US Imperialism. whatreallyhappened.com. Retrieved on 2006-07-30. (Death toll, interventions, air war campaigns, debt-leverage imperialism, proxy wars, etc.)
- USA and Latin America. casahistoria.net. Retrieved on 2006-07-30. History links to the early US involvement in Latin America from casahistoria.
[edit] Notes
<references/>
- ↑ Miller, p. 136, 163 "Will Show No Mercy Real Warfare Ahead For Filipino Rebels Kitchener Plan Adopted The Administration Weary of Protracted Hostilities." Boston Herald, November 19, 1900.
- ↑ See Lodge Committee, Jacob H. Smith, J. Franklin Bell, for more detailed accounts, see the imperialist newspaper accounts wikisource: Lodge Committee testimony from the New York Times, wikiquote: Philippine-American War Quotes
- ↑ Alternative words for U.S.A. nationals. Reference.com. Retrieved on January 21, 2006.
