Horse

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Linnaeus, Carolus (1758). Systema naturae per regna tria naturae :secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis.. 1 (10th ed.). Holmiae (Laurentii Salvii). p. 73. http://biodiversitylibrary.org/page/726976. Retrieved 2008-09-08. </ref>

The horse (Equus ferus caballus)<ref name=MSW3>Grubb, Peter (16 November 2005). "Order Perissodactyla (pp. 629-636)". In Wilson, Don E., and Reeder, DeeAnn M., eds. Mammal Species of the World: A Taxonomic and Geographic Reference (3rd ed.). Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2 vols. (2142 pp.). p. 630-631. ISBN 978-0-8018-8221-0. OCLC 62265494. http://www.bucknell.edu/msw3/browse.asp?id=14100016. </ref><ref>International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature (2003). "Usage of 17 specific names based on wild species which are pre-dated by or contemporary with those based on domestic animals (Lepidoptera, Osteichthyes, Mammalia): conserved. Opinion 2027 (Case 3010).". Bull.Zool.Nomencl. 60 (1): 81–84. http://www.nhm.ac.uk/hosted_sites/iczn/BZNMar2003opinions.htm. </ref> is a hooved (ungulate) mammal, a subspecies of the family Equidae. The horse has evolved over the past 45 to 55 million years from a small multi-toed creature into the large, single-toed animal of today. Humans began to domesticate horses around 4000 BC, and their domestication is believed to have been widespread by 3000 BC. Although most horses today are domesticated, there are still endangered populations of the Przewalski's Horse, the only remaining true wild horse, as well as more common populations of feral horses which live in the wild but are descended from domesticated ancestors. There is an extensive, specialized vocabulary used to describe equine-related concepts, covering everything from anatomy to life stages, size, colors, markings, breeds, locomotion, and behaviour.

Horses' anatomy enables them to make use of speed to escape predators and they have a well-developed sense of balance and a strong fight-or-flight instinct. Related to this need to flee from predators in the wild is an unusual trait: horses are able to sleep both standing up and lying down. Female horses, called mares, carry their young for approximately 11 months, and a young horse, called a foal, can stand and run shortly following birth. Most domesticated horses begin training under saddle or in harness between the ages of two and four. They reach full adult development by age five, and have an average lifespan of between 25 and 30 years.

Horse breeds are loosely divided into three categories based on general temperament: spirited "hot bloods" with speed and endurance; "cold bloods", such as draft horses and some ponies, suitable for slow, heavy work; and "warmbloods", developed from crosses between hot bloods and cold bloods, often focusing on creating breeds for specific riding purposes, particularly in Europe. There are over 300 breeds of horses in the world today, developed for many different uses.

Horses and humans interact in a wide variety of sport competitions and non-competitive recreational pursuits, as well as in working activities such as police work, agriculture, entertainment, and therapy. Horses were historically used in warfare, from which a wide variety of riding and driving techniques developed, using many different styles of equipment and methods of control. Many products are derived from horses, including meat, milk, hide, hair, bone, and pharmaceuticals extracted from the urine of pregnant mares. Humans provide domesticated horses with food, water and shelter, as well as attention from specialists such as veterinarians and farriers.

[edit] Biology

Horse anatomy is described by a large number of specific terms, as illustrated by the chart to the right. Specific terms also describe various ages, colors and breeds.

[edit] Lifespan and life stages

Depending on breed, management and environment, the domestic horse today has a life expectancy of 25 to 30 years.<ref name=Ensminger46/> It is uncommon, but a few animals live into their 40s and, occasionally, beyond.<ref>Wright, B. (March 29, 1999). "The Age of a Horse". Ministry of Agriculture, Food and Rural Affairs. Government of Ontario. http://www.omafra.gov.on.ca/english/livestock/horses/facts/info_age.htm. Retrieved 2009-10-21. </ref> The oldest verifiable record was "Old Billy", a 19th-century horse that lived to the age of 62.<ref name=Ensminger46/> In modern times, Sugar Puff, who had been listed in the Guinness Book of World Records as the world's oldest living pony, died in 2007, aged 56.<ref>Ryder, Erin. "World's Oldest Living Pony Dies at 56". TheHorse.com. The Horse. http://www.thehorse.com/viewarticle.aspx?ID=9708. Retrieved 2007-05-31. </ref>

Regardless of a horse's actual birth date, for most competition purposes an animal is considered a year older on January 1 of each year in the northern hemisphere<ref name=Ensminger46/><ref>British Horse Society The Manual of Horsemanship of the British Horse Society p. 255</ref> and August 1 in the southern hemisphere.<ref>"Rules of the Australian Stud Book" (PDF). Australian Jockey Club. 2007. p. 7. http://www.studbook.org.au/DisplayPDF.aspx?ty=RULES. Retrieved 2008-07-09. </ref> The exception is in endurance riding, where the minimum age to compete is based on the animal's calendar age.<ref name=Endurance>"Age Matters (Your Horse's Age, That Is!)". American Endurance Riding Conference. http://www.aerc.org/horseage.asp. Retrieved 2008-04-05. </ref> A very rough estimate of a horse's age can be made from looking at its teeth.<ref name=Ensminger46/>

The following terminology is used to describe horses of various ages:

• Foal: a horse of either sex less than one year old. A nursing foal is sometimes called a suckling and a foal that has been weaned is called a weanling.<ref name=Ensminger418>Ensminger Horses and Horsemanship p. 418</ref> Most domesticated foals are weaned at 5 to 7 months of age, although foals can be weaned at 4 months with no adverse effects.<ref>Giffen, et al., Horse Owner's Veterinary Handbook, p. 431</ref>
• Yearling: a horse of either sex that is between one and two years old.<ref>Ensminger Horses and Horsemanship p. 430</ref>
• Colt: a male horse under the age of four.<ref>Ensminger Horses and Horsemanship p. 415</ref> A common terminology error is to call any young horse a "colt", when the term actually only refers to young male horses.<ref>Becker, et al., Why Do Horses Sleep Standing Up?, p. 23</ref>
• Filly: a female horse under the age of four.<ref name=Ensminger418/>
• Mare: a female horse four years old and older.<ref>Ensminger Horses and Horsemanship p. 422</ref>
• Stallion: a non-castrated male horse four years old and older.<ref>Ensminger Horses and Horsemanship p. 427</ref> Some people, particularly in the UK, refer to a stallion as a "horse".<ref name=Ensminger420>Ensminger Horses and Horsemanship p. 420</ref>
• Gelding: a castrated male horse of any age.<ref name=Ensminger418/>

In horse racing, these definitions may differ: For example, in the British Isles, Thoroughbred horse racing defines colts and fillies as less than five years old.<ref>"Glossary of Horse Racing Terms". Equibase.com. Equibase Company, LLC. http://www.equibase.com/newfan/glossary-full.cfm. Retrieved 2008-04-03. </ref> However, for Australian Thoroughbred racing, colts and fillies are less than four years old.<ref>"Rules of the Australian Stud Book". Australian Jockey Club Ltd and Victoria Racing Club Ltd. July 2008. p. 9. http://www.studbook.org.au/DisplayPDF.aspx?ty=RULES. Retrieved 2010-02-05. </ref>

[edit] Size and measurement

The height of horses is measured at the highest point of the withers, where the neck meets the back. This point was chosen as it is a stable point of the anatomy, unlike the head or neck, which move up and down.

The English-speaking world measures the height of horses in hands (abbreviated "h" or "hh", for "hands high") and inches. One hand is equal to 101.6 millimetres (4 in). The height is expressed as the number of full hands, followed by a decimal point, then the number of additional inches. Thus, a horse described as "15.2 h" is 15 hands (60 inches (152.4 cm)) plus 2 inches (5.1 cm), for a total of 62 inches (157.5 cm) in height.<ref name=Ensminger51>Ensminger Horses and Horsemanship p. 51</ref>

The size of horses varies by breed, but also is influenced by nutrition. Light riding horses usually range in height from 14 to 16 hands (56 to 64 inches, 142 to 163 cm) and can weigh from 380 to 550 kilograms (840 to 1,200 lb).<ref>Bongianni Simon & Schuster's Guide to Horses & Ponies of the World entry 1,68,69</ref> Larger riding horses usually start at about 15.2 hands (62 inches, 157 cm) and often are as tall as 17 hands (68 inches, 173 cm), weighing from 500 to 600 kilograms (1,100 to 1,300 lb).<ref>Bongianni Simon & Schuster's Guide to Horses & Ponies of the World entry 12,30,31,32,75</ref> Heavy or draft horses are usually at least 16 to 18 hands (64 to 72 inches, 163 to 183 cm) high and can weigh from about 700 to 1,000 kilograms (1,500 to 2,200 lb).<ref>Bongianni Simon & Schuster's Guide to Horses & Ponies of the World entry 86, 96, 97</ref>

The largest horse in recorded history was probably a Shire horse named Mammoth, who was born in 1848. He stood 21.2½ hands high (86.5 in/220 cm), and his peak weight was estimated at 1,500 kilograms (3,300 lb).<ref name=Whitaker60>Whitaker The Horse p. 60</ref> The current record holder for the world's smallest horse is Thumbelina, a fully mature miniature horse affected by dwarfism. She is 17 inches (43 cm) tall and weighs 57 pounds (26 kg).<ref>Martin, Arthur (2006-10-08). "Meet Thumbelina, the World's Smallest Horse". Daily Mail (London). http://www.dailymail.co.uk/pages/live/articles/news/news.html?in_article_id=409317&in_page_id=1770. Retrieved 2006-10-08. </ref>

[edit] Ponies

The general rule for height between a horse and a pony at maturity is 14.2 hands (58 inches, 147 cm). An animal 14.2 h or over is usually considered to be a horse and one less than 14.2 h a pony.<ref name=EnsmingerHT11>Ensminger Horses and Tack pp. 11–12</ref> However, there are many exceptions to the general rule. In Australia, ponies measure under 14 hands (56 inches, 142 cm).<ref>Howlett, Ponies in Australia, p. 14</ref> The International Federation for Equestrian Sports, which uses metric measurements, defines the cutoff between horses and ponies at 148 centimetres (58.27 in) (just over 14.2 h) without shoes and 149 centimetres (58.66 in) (just over 14.2½ h) with shoes.<ref>"Annex XVII: Extracts from Rules for Pony Riders and Children, 9th edition". Fédération Equestre Internationale. 2009. http://www.fei.org/sites/default/files/Annex%20XVII%20-%20Extracts%20Ponies.pdf. Retrieved 2010-03-07. </ref> Some breeds which typically produce individuals both under and over 14.2 h consider all animals of that breed to be horses regardless of their height.<ref>For example, the Missouri Fox Trotter or the Arabian horse. See McBane The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Horse Breeds pp. 192, 218</ref> Conversely, some pony breeds may have features in common with horses, and individual animals may occasionally mature at over 14.2 h, but are still considered to be ponies.<ref>For example, the Welsh Pony. See McBane The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Horse Breeds pp. 52–63</ref>

The distinction between a horse and pony is not simply a difference in height, but other aspects of phenotype or appearance, such as conformation and temperament. Ponies often exhibit thicker manes, tails, and overall coat. They also have proportionally shorter legs, wider barrels, heavier bone, shorter and thicker necks, and short heads with broad foreheads. They may have calmer temperaments than horses and also a high level of equine intelligence that may or may not be used to cooperate with human handlers.<ref name=EnsmingerHT11/> In fact, small size, by itself, is sometimes not a factor at all. While the Shetland pony stands on average 10 hands (40 inches, 102 cm),<ref name=HorseTack12>Ensminger Horses and Tack p. 12</ref> the Falabella and other miniature horses, which can be no taller than 30 inches (76 cm), the size of a medium-sized dog, are classified by their respective registries as very small horses rather than as ponies.<ref>McBane The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Horse Breeds p. 200</ref>

[edit] Colors and markings

Horses exhibit a diverse array of coat colors and distinctive markings, described with a specialized vocabulary. Often, a horse is classified first by its coat color, before breed or sex.<ref>Vogel, The Complete Horse Care Manual, p. 14</ref> Horses of the same color may be distinguished from one another by white markings,<ref>Mills, et al., A Basic Guide to Horse Care and Management, pp. 72–73</ref> which, along with various spotting patterns, are inherited separately from coat color.<ref>Corum, Stephanie J. (May 1, 2003). "A Horse of a Different Color" (Registration required). The Horse. http://www.thehorse.com/ViewArticle.aspx?ID=4354. Retrieved 2010-02-11. </ref>

Many genes that create horse coat colors have been identified, although research continues to further identify factors that result in specific traits. One of the first genetic relationships to be understood was that between recessive "red" (chestnut) and dominant "black", which is controlled by the "red factor" or extension gene. Additional alleles control spotting, graying, suppression or dilution of color, and other effects that create the dozens of possible coat colors found in horses.<ref name=UCVGL>"Horse Coat Color Tests". Veterinary Genetics Laboratory. University of California. http://www.vgl.ucdavis.edu/services/coatcolorhorse.php. Retrieved 2008-05-01. </ref>

Chestnut, bay, and black are the basic equine coat colors. These colors are modified by at least ten other genes to create all other colors, including dilutions such as palomino and spotting patterns such as pinto.<ref name=UCVGL/> Horses which are white in coat color are often mislabeled as "white" horses. However, a horse that looks white is usually a middle-aged or older gray. Grays are born a darker shade, get lighter as they age, and usually have black skin underneath their white hair coat (with the exception of pink skin under white markings). The only horses properly called white are born with a white hair coat and have predominantly pink skin, a fairly rare occurrence.<ref>"Introduction to Coat Color Genetics". Veterinary Genetics Laboratory. University of California. http://www.vgl.ucdavis.edu/services/coatcolor.php. Retrieved 2008-05-01. </ref> There are no truly "albino" horses having both pink skin and red eyes.<ref name=Duplicatetest>Mau, C., Poncet, P. A., Bucher, B., Stranzinger, G. & Rieder, S. (2004). "Genetic mapping of dominant white (W), a homozygous lethal condition in the horse (Equus caballus) (2004)". Journal of Animal Breeding and Genetics 121 (6): 374–383. doi:10.1111/j.1439-0388.2004.00481.x. http://www.blackwell-synergy.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1439-0388.2004.00481.x?journalCode=jbg. Retrieved 9 January 2009. </ref>

[edit] Reproduction and development

Gestation lasts for approximately 335–340 days<ref name=HorseTack129>Ensminger Horses and Tack p. 129</ref> and usually results in one foal. Twins are rare.<ref>Johnson, Tom. "Rare Twin Foals Born at Vet Hospital: Twin Birth Occurrences Number One in Ten Thousand". Communications Services, Oklahoma State University. Oklahoma State University. http://www2.okstate.edu/pio/twinfoals.html. Retrieved 2008-09-23. </ref> Horses are a precocial species, and foals are capable of standing and running within a short time following birth.<ref>Miller, Revolution, pp. 102–103</ref>

Horses, particularly colts, sometimes are physically capable of reproduction at about 18 months, but domesticated horses are rarely allowed to breed before the age of three, especially females.<ref name=HorseTack129/> Horses four years old are considered mature, although the skeleton normally continues to develop until the age of six; maturation also depends on the horse's size, breed, sex, and quality of care. Also, if the horse is larger, its bones are larger; therefore, not only do the bones take longer to actually form bone tissue, but the epiphyseal plates are also larger and take longer to convert from cartilage to bone. These plates convert after the other parts of the bones, and are crucial to development.<ref>McIlwraith, C.W.. "Developmental Orthopaedic Disease: Problems of Limbs in young Horses". Orthopaedic Research Center. Colorado State University. http://www.equineortho.colostate.edu/questions/dod.htm. Retrieved 2008-04-20. </ref>

Depending on maturity, breed, and work expected, horses are usually put under saddle and trained to be ridden between the ages of two and four.<ref name=Train163>Thomas Storey's Guide to Training Horses p. 163</ref> Although Thoroughbred race horses are put on the track at as young as two years old in some countries,<ref>"2-Year-Old Racing (US and Canada)". Online Fact Book. Jockey Club. http://www.jockeyclub.com/factbook.asp?section=11. Retrieved 2008-04-28. </ref> horses specifically bred for sports such as dressage are generally not put under saddle until they are three or four years old, because their bones and muscles are not solidly developed.<ref>Bryant, The USDF Guide to Dressage, pp. 271–272</ref> For endurance riding competition, horses are not deemed mature enough to compete until they are a full 60 calendar months (5 years) old.<ref name=Endurance/>

[edit] Anatomy

[edit] Skeletal system

Horses have a skeleton that averages 205 bones.<ref name=Evans90>Evans The Horse p. 90</ref> A significant difference between the horse skeleton and that of a human, is the lack of a collarbone—the horse's forelimbs are attached to the spinal column by a powerful set of muscles, tendons, and ligaments that attach the shoulder blade to the torso. The horse's legs and hooves are also unique structures. Their leg bones are proportioned differently from those of a human. For example, the body part that is called a horse's "knee" is actually made up of the carpal bones that correspond to the human wrist. Similarly, the hock contains bones equivalent to those in the human ankle and heel. The lower leg bones of a horse correspond to the bones of the human hand or foot, and the fetlock (incorrectly called the "ankle") is actually the proximal sesamoid bones between the cannon bones (a single equivalent to the human metacarpal or metatarsal bones) and the proximal phalanges, located where one finds the "knuckles" of a human. A horse also has no muscles in its legs below the knees and hocks, only skin, hair, bone, tendons, ligaments, cartilage, and the assorted specialized tissues that make up the hoof.<ref name=Ensminger21>Ensminger Horses and Horsemanship pp. 21–25</ref>

[edit] Hooves

The critical importance of the feet and legs is summed up by the traditional adage, "no foot, no horse".<ref name=Ensminger367>Ensminger Horses and Horsemanship p. 367</ref> The horse hoof begins with the distal phalanges, the equivalent of the human fingertip or tip of the toe, surrounded by cartilage and other specialized, blood-rich soft tissues such as the laminae. The exterior hoof wall and horn of the sole is made of essentially the same material as a human fingernail.<ref>Giffin Horse Owner's Veterinary Handbook p. 304</ref> The end result is that a horse, weighing on average 500 kilograms (1,100 lb),<ref>Giffin Horse Owner's Veterinary Handbook p. 457</ref> travels on the same bones as would a human on tiptoe.<ref>Fuess, Ph.D., Theresa A.. "Yes, The Shin Bone Is Connected to the Ankle Bone". Pet Column. University of Illinois. Archived from the original on September 9, 2006. http://web.archive.org/web/20060909161307/http://www.cvm.uiuc.edu/petcolumns/showarticle_pf.cfm?id=118. Retrieved 2008-04-05. </ref> For the protection of the hoof under certain conditions, some horses have horseshoes placed on their feet by a professional farrier. The hoof continually grows, and needs to be trimmed (and horseshoes reset, if used) every five to eight weeks.<ref>Giffin Horse Owner's Veterinary Handbook pp. 310–312</ref>

[edit] Teeth

Horses are adapted to grazing. In an adult horse, there are 12 incisors, adapted to biting off the grass or other vegetation, at the front of the mouth. There are 24 teeth adapted for chewing, the premolars and molars, at the back of the mouth. Stallions and geldings have four additional teeth just behind the incisors, a type of canine teeth that are called "tushes". Some horses, both male and female, will also develop one to four very small vestigial teeth in front of the molars, known as "wolf" teeth, which are generally removed because they can interfere with the bit. There is an empty interdental space between the incisors and the molars where the bit rests directly on the bars (gums) of the horse's mouth when the horse is bridled.<ref>Kreling Horses' Teeth and Their Problems pp. 12–13</ref>

The incisors show a distinct wear and growth pattern as the horse ages, as well as change in the angle at which the chewing surfaces meet. The teeth continue to erupt throughout life as they are worn down by grazing, so a very rough estimate of a horse's age can be made by an examination of its teeth, although diet and veterinary care can affect the rate of tooth wear.<ref name=Ensminger46>Ensminger Horses and Horsemanship pp. 46–50</ref>

[edit] Digestion

Horses are herbivores with a digestive system adapted to a forage diet of grasses and other plant material, consumed steadily throughout the day. Therefore, compared to humans, they have a relatively small stomach but very long intestines to facilitate a steady flow of nutrients. A 450-kilogram (990 lb) horse will eat 7 to 11 kilograms (15 to 24 lb) of food per day and, under normal use, drink 38 litres (8.4 imp gal; 10 US gal) to 45 litres (9.9 imp gal; 12 US gal) of water. Horses are not ruminants, so they have only one stomach, like humans, but unlike humans, they can also digest cellulose from grasses due to the presence of a "hind gut" called the cecum, or "water gut", which food goes through before reaching the large intestine. Unlike humans, horses cannot vomit, so digestion problems can quickly cause colic, a leading cause of death.<ref>Giffin Horse Owner's Veterinary Handbook p. 175</ref>

[edit] Senses

The horse's senses are generally superior to those of a human. As prey animals, they must be aware of their surroundings at all times.<ref name=Ensminger309>Ensminger Horses and Horsemanship pp. 309–310</ref> They have the largest eyes of any land mammal,<ref name=Sellnow>Sellnow, Happy Trails, p. 46</ref> and are lateral-eyed, meaning that their eyes are positioned on the sides of their heads.<ref>"Eye Position and Animal Agility Study Published". The Horse. March 7, 2010. http://www.thehorse.com/ViewArticle.aspx?ID=15938. Retrieved 2010-03-11. </ref> This means that horses have a range of vision of more than 350°, with approximately 65° of this being binocular vision and the remaining 285° monocular vision.<ref name=Sellnow/> Horses have excellent day and night vision, but they have two-color, or dichromatic vision; their color vision is somewhat like red-green color blindness in humans, where certain colors, especially red and related colors, appear more green.<ref>McDonnell, Sue (June 1, 2007). "In Living Color" (registration required). The Horse (The Horse, Inc.). http://www.thehorse.com/viewarticle.aspx?ID=9670. Retrieved 2007-07-27. </ref>

Their hearing is good,<ref name=Ensminger309/> and the pinna of each ear can rotate up to 180°, giving the potential for 360° hearing without having to move the head.<ref>Myers Horse Safe p.7</ref> Their sense of smell, while much better than that of humans, is not their strongest asset; they rely to a greater extent on vision.<ref name=Ensminger309/>

Horses have a great sense of balance, due partly to their ability to feel their footing and partly to highly developed proprioceptive abilities (the unconscious sense of where the body and limbs are at all times).<ref>Thomas, Heather Smith. "True Horse Sense". Thoroughbred Times. Thoroughbred Times Company. http://www.thoroughbredtimes.com/horse-health/1998/October/17/True-horse-sense.aspx. Retrieved 2008-07-08. </ref> A horse's sense of touch is well developed. The most sensitive areas are around the eyes, ears, and nose.<ref>Cirelli, Al Jr. and Brenda Cloud. "Horse Handling and Riding Guidelines Part 1: Equine Senses" (PDF). Cooperative Extension. University of Nevada. pp. 4. http://www.unce.unr.edu/publications/files/ag/other/fs9829.pdf. Retrieved 2008-07-09. </ref> Horses sense contact as subtle as an insect landing anywhere on the body.<ref>Hairston, et al., The Essentials of Horsekeeping, p. 77</ref>

Horses have an advanced sense of taste that allows them to sort through fodder to choose what they would most like to eat,<ref>Miller, Understanding the Ancient Secrets of the Horse's Mind, p. 28</ref> and their prehensile lips can easily sort even the smallest grains. Horses generally will not eat poisonous plants. However, there are exceptions and horses will occasionally eat toxic amounts of poisonous plants even when there is adequate healthy food.<ref>Gustavson, Carrie. "Horse Pasture is No Place for Poisonous Plants". Pet Column July 24, 2000. University of Illinois. Archived from the original on August 9, 2007. http://web.archive.org/web/20070809051147/http://www.cvm.uiuc.edu/petcolumns/showarticle.cfm?id=16. Retrieved 2008-07-09. </ref>

[edit] Movement

All horses move naturally with four basic gaits: the four-beat walk, which averages 6.4 kilometres per hour (4.0 mph); the two-beat trot or jog at 13 to 19 kilometres per hour (8.1 to 12 mph) (faster for harness racing horses); the canter or lope, a three-beat gait that is 19 to 24 kilometres per hour (12 to 15 mph); and the gallop.<ref name=HorseGaits32>Harris Horse Gaits, Balance and Movement p. 32</ref> The gallop averages 40 to 48 kilometres per hour (25 to 30 mph),<ref name=Harris47>Harris, Horse Gaits, Balance and Movement pp. 47–49</ref> but the world record for a horse galloping over a short, sprint distance is 88 kilometres per hour (55 mph).<ref>"About the Horse". First Timers Guide. American Quarter Horse Association. http://racing.aqha.com/racing/dyn_content.aspx?FQD=http://www.aqha.com/aqharacing.com/gettingstarted/firsttimersguide/thehorse.html. Retrieved 2008-09-16. </ref> Besides these basic gaits, some horses perform a two-beat pace, instead of the trot.<ref name=HorseGaits50>Harris Horse Gaits, Balance and Movement p. 50</ref> There also are several four-beat "ambling" gaits that are approximately the speed of a trot or pace, though smoother to ride. These include the lateral rack, running walk, and tölt as well as the diagonal fox trot.<ref name="Lieberman">Lieberman, Bobbie (August 2007). "Easy Gaited Horses". Equus (359): 47–51. </ref> Ambling gaits are often genetic in some breeds, known collectively as gaited horses.<ref>Equus Staff (August 2007). "Breeds that Gait". Equus (359): 52–54. </ref> Often, gaited horses replace the trot with one of the ambling gaits.<ref name=HorseGaits51>Harris Horse Gaits, Balance and Movement pp. 50–55</ref>

[edit] Behavior

Horses are prey animals with a strong fight-or-flight instinct. Their first response to threat is to startle and usually flee, although they will stand their ground and defend themselves when flight is not possible, or if their young are threatened. They also tend to be curious; when startled, they will often hesitate an instant to ascertain the cause of their fright, and may not always flee from something that they perceive as non-threatening. Most light horse riding breeds were developed for speed, agility, alertness and endurance; natural qualities that extend from their wild ancestors. However, through selective breeding, some breeds of horses are quite docile, particularly certain draft horses.<ref name=Natural226>McBane A Natural Approach to Horse Management pp. 226–228</ref> Horses are herd animals, with a clear hierarchy of rank, led by a dominant animal (usually a mare). They are also social creatures who are able to form companionship attachments to their own species and to other animals, including humans. They communicate in various ways, including vocalizations such as nickering or whinnying, mutual grooming, and body language. Many horses will become difficult to manage if they are isolated, but with training, horses can learn to accept a human as a companion, and thus be comfortable away from other horses.<ref name=Ensminger305>Ensminger Horses and Horsemanship pp. 305–309</ref> However, when confined with insufficient companionship, exercise, or stimulation, individuals may develop stable vices, an assortment of bad habits, mostly psychological in origin, that include wood chewing, wall kicking, "weaving" (rocking back and forth), and other problems.<ref name=Prince214>Prince Basic Horsemanship pp. 214–223</ref>

[edit] Intelligence and learning

In the past, horses were considered unintelligent, with no abstract thinking ability, unable to generalize, and driven primarily by a herd mentality. However, modern studies show that they perform a number of cognitive tasks on a daily basis, with mental challenges that include food procurement and social system identification. They also have good spatial discrimination abilities.<ref name=Hanggi>Hanggi, Evelyn B. (2007-04-16). "Understanding horse intelligence". Horsetalk 2007. Horsetalk. http://www.horsetalk.co.nz/features/horseintelligence-119.shtml. Retrieved 2008-09-16. </ref> Studies have assessed equine intelligence in the realms of problem solving, learning speed, and knowledge retention. Results show that horses excel at simple learning, but also are able to solve advanced cognitive challenges that involve categorization and concept learning. They learn from habituation, desensitization, Pavlovian conditioning, and operant conditioning. They respond to and learn from both positive and negative reinforcement.<ref name=Hanggi/> Recent studies even suggest horses are able to count if the quantity involved is less than four.<ref name="count">Lesté-Lasserre, Christa. "Horses Demonstrate Ability to Count in New Study". The Horse, Online Edition. Blood-Horse Publications. http://www.thehorse.com/ViewArticle.aspx?ID=15396. Retrieved 2009-12-06. </ref>

Domesticated horses tend to face greater mental challenges than wild horses, because they live in artificial environments that stifle instinctual behaviour while learning tasks that are not natural.<ref name=Hanggi/> Horses are creatures of habit that respond and adapt well to regimentation, and respond best when the same routines and techniques are used consistently. Some trainers believe that "intelligent" horses are reflections of intelligent trainers who effectively use response conditioning techniques and positive reinforcement to train in the style that fits best with an individual animal's natural inclinations. Others who handle horses regularly note that personality also may play a role separate from intelligence in determining how a given animal responds to various experiences.<ref>Coarse, Jim (2008-06-17). "What Big Brown Couldn't Tell You and Mr. Ed Kept to Himself (part 1)". The BloodHorse. Blood-Horse Publications. http://cs.bloodhorse.com/blogs/nicanor/archive/2008/06/17/equine-iq-what-big-brown-couldn-t-tell-you-and-mr-ed-kept-to-himself.aspx. Retrieved 2008-09-16. </ref>

[edit] Temperament

Horses are mammals, and as such are "warm-blooded" creatures, as opposed to cold-blooded reptiles. However, these words have developed a separate meaning in the context of equine terminology, used to describe temperament, not body temperature. For example, the "hot-bloods", such as many race horses, exhibit more sensitivity and energy,<ref name=Belknap255>Belknap Horsewords p. 255</ref> while the "cold-bloods", such as most draft breeds, are quieter and calmer.<ref name=Belknap112>Belknap Horsewords p. 112</ref> Sometimes "hot-bloods" are classified as "light horses" or "riding horses",<ref name=Ensminger71>Ensminger Horses and Horsemanship pp. 71–73</ref> with the "cold-bloods" classified as "draft horses" or "work horses".<ref name=Ensminger84>Ensminger Horses and Horsemanship p. 84</ref>

"Hot blooded" breeds include "oriental horses" such as the Akhal-Teke, Barb, Arabian horse and now-extinct Turkoman horse, as well as the Thoroughbred, a breed developed in England from the older oriental breeds.<ref name=Belknap255/> Hot bloods tend to be spirited, bold, and learn quickly. They are bred for agility and speed.<ref name=Catalog18/> They tend to be physically refined—thin-skinned, slim, and long-legged.<ref>DeFilippis The Everything Horse Care Book p. 4</ref> The original oriental breeds were brought to Europe from the Middle East and North Africa when European breeders wished to infuse these traits into racing and light cavalry horses.<ref name=Whitaker43>Whitaker The Horse p. 43</ref><ref name=Whitaker194>Whitaker The Horse pp. 194–197</ref>

Muscular, heavy draft horses are known as "cold bloods", as they are bred not only for strength, but also to have the calm, patient temperament needed to pull a plow or a heavy carriage full of people.<ref name=Belknap112/> They are sometimes nicknamed "gentle giants".<ref name=Catalog15>Price Whole Horse Catalog p. 15</ref> Well-known draft breeds include the Belgian and the Clydesdale.<ref name=Catalog15/> Some, like the Percheron are lighter and livelier, developed to pull carriages or to plow large fields in drier climates.<ref name=Guide87>Bongianni Simon & Schuster's Guide to Horses & Ponies of the World entry 87</ref> Others, such as the Shire, are slower and more powerful, bred to plow fields with heavy, clay-based soils.<ref name=Ens124>Ensminger Horses and Horsemanship pp. 124–125</ref> The cold-blooded group also includes some pony breeds.<ref>Bennett, Conquerors, p. 7</ref>

"Warmblood" breeds, such as the Trakehner or Hanoverian, developed when European carriage and war horses were crossed with Arabians or Thoroughbreds, producing a riding horse with more refinement than a draft horse, but greater size and milder temperament than a lighter breed.<ref>Edwards, The Encyclopedia of the Horse, pp. 122–123</ref> Certain pony breeds with warmblood characteristics have been developed for smaller riders.<ref>Examples are the Australian Riding Pony and the Connemara, see Edwards, The Encyclopedia of the Horse, pp. 178–179, 208–209</ref> Warmbloods are considered a "light horse" or "riding horse".<ref name=Ensminger71/>

Today, the term "Warmblood" refers to a specific subset of sport horse breeds that are used for competition in dressage and show jumping.<ref name=Lyons231>Price et al. Lyons Press Horseman's Dictionary p. 231</ref> Strictly speaking, the term "warm blood" refers to any cross between cold-blooded and hot-blooded breeds.<ref name=Belknap523>Belknap Horsewords p. 523</ref> Examples include breeds such as the Irish Draught or the Cleveland Bay. The term was once used to refer to breeds of light riding horse other than Thoroughbreds or Arabians, such as the Morgan horse.<ref name=Catalog18>Price, et al. Whole Horse Catalog p. 18</ref>

[edit] Sleep patterns

Horses are able to sleep both standing up and lying down. In an adaptation from life in the wild, horses are able to enter light sleep by using a "stay apparatus" in their legs, allowing them to doze without collapsing.<ref>Pascoe, Elaine. "How Horses Sleep". Equisearch.com. EquiSearch. http://equisearch.com/horses_care/health/behavior/eqzzz629/. Retrieved 2007-03-23. </ref> Horses sleep better when in groups because some animals will sleep while others stand guard to watch for predators. A horse kept alone will not sleep well because its instincts are to keep a constant eye out for danger.<ref name="Horse sleep pt. 2"/>

Unlike humans, horses do not sleep in a solid, unbroken period of time, but take many short periods of rest. Horses spend four to fifteen hours a day in standing rest, and from a few minutes to several hours lying down. Total sleep time in a 24-hour period may range from several minutes to a couple of hours,<ref name="Horse sleep pt. 2">Pascoe, Elaine. "How Horses Sleep, Pt. 2 – Power Naps". Equisearch.com. EquiSearch. http://equisearch.com/horses_care/health/behavior/eqpowernap1771/. Retrieved 2007-03-23. </ref> mostly in short intervals of about 15 minutes each.<ref name=Ensminger310>Ensminger Horses and Horsemanship p. 310.</ref>

Horses must lie down to reach REM sleep. They only have to lie down for an hour or two every few days to meet their minimum REM sleep requirements.<ref name="Horse sleep pt. 2"/> However, if a horse is never allowed to lie down, after several days it will become sleep-deprived, and in rare cases may suddenly collapse as it involuntarily slips into REM sleep while still standing.<ref>EQUUS Magazine Editors. "Equine Sleep Disorder Videos". Equisearch.com. EquiSearch. http://equisearch.com/horses_care/health/behavior/sleepdisorder_121506/. Retrieved 2007-03-23. </ref> This condition differs from narcolepsy, although horses may also suffer from that disorder.<ref name="Smith">Smith Large Animal Internal Medicine pp. 1086–1087</ref>

[edit] Taxonomy and evolution

The horse adapted to survive in areas of wide-open terrain with sparse vegetation, surviving in an ecosystem where other large grazing animals, especially ruminants, could not.<ref name="Budiansky">Budiansky The Nature of Horses p. 31</ref> Horses and other equids are odd-toed ungulates of the order Perissodactyla, a group of mammals that was dominant during the Tertiary period. In the past, this order contained 14 families, but only three—Equidae (the horse and related species), the tapir, and the rhinoceros—have survived to the present day.<ref>Myers, Phil. "Order Perissodactyla". Animal Diversity Web. University of Michigan. http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Perissodactyla.html. Retrieved 2008-07-09. </ref> The earliest known member of the Equidae family was the Hyracotherium, which lived between 45 and 55 million years ago, during the Eocene period. It had 4 toes on each front foot, and 3 toes on each back foot.<ref>"Hyracotherium". Fossil Horses in Cyberspace. Florida Museum of Natural History. http://www.flmnh.ufl.edu/fhc/hyraco1.htm. Retrieved 2008-07-09. </ref> The extra toe on the front feet soon disappeared with the Mesohippus, which lived 32 to 37 million years ago.<ref>"Mesohippus". Fossil Horses in Cyberspace. Florida Museum of Natural History. http://www.flmnh.ufl.edu/fhc/mesoh1.htm. Retrieved 2008-07-09. </ref> Over time, the extra side toes shrank in size until they vanished. All that remains of them in modern horses is a set of small vestigial bones on the leg below the knee,<ref name=Natural>"The Evolution of Horses". The Horse. American Museum of Natural History. http://www.amnh.org/exhibitions/horse/?section=evolution&page=evolution_b. Retrieved 2008-07-09. </ref> known informally as splint bones.<ref>Miller, Understanding the Ancient Secrets of the Horse's Mind, p. 20</ref> Their legs also lengthened as their toes disappeared until they were a hooved animal capable of running at great speed.<ref name=Natural/> By about 5 million years ago, the modern Equus had evolved.<ref name=Florida>"Equus". Fossil Horses in Cyberspace. Florida Museum of Natural History. http://www.flmnh.ufl.edu/fhc/equus1.htm. Retrieved 2008-07-09. </ref> Equid teeth also evolved from browsing on soft, tropical plants to adapt to browsing of drier plant material, then to grazing of tougher plains grasses. Thus proto-horses changed from leaf-eating forest-dwellers to grass-eating inhabitants of semi-arid regions worldwide, including the steppes of Eurasia and the Great Plains of North America.

By about 15,000 years ago, Equus ferus was a widespread holarctic species. Horse bones from this time period, the late Pleistocene, are found in Europe, Eurasia, Beringia, and North America.<ref name = Weinstock>Weinstock, J.; et al. (2005). "Evolution, systematics, and phylogeography of Pleistocene horses in the New World: a molecular perspective". PLoS Biology 3 (8): e241. doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.0030241. PMID 15974804. PMC 1159165. http://biology.plosjournals.org/perlserv/?request=get-document&doi=10.1371%2Fjournal.pbio.0030241&ct=1. Retrieved 2008-12-19. </ref> Yet between 10,000 and 7,600 years ago, the horse became extinct in North America and rare elsewhere.<ref name = VilaWidespreadOrigins>Vila, C.; et al. (2001). "Widespread Origins of Domestic Horse Lineages" (PDF). Science 291 (5503): 474–7. doi:10.1126/science.291.5503.474. PMID 11161199. http://www.uky.edu/Ag/Horsemap/Maps/VILA.PDF. </ref><ref name = IberianOrigins>Luís, Cristina; et al. (2006). "Iberian Origins of New World Horse Breeds". Quaternary Science Reviews 97 (2): 107–113. doi:10.1093/jhered/esj020. PMID 16489143. http://jhered.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/full/97/2/107. </ref><ref name=Haile>http://www.pnas.org/content/106/52/22352.full</ref> The reasons for this extinction are not fully known, but one theory notes that extinction in North America paralleled human arrival.<ref name = Buck>Buck, Caitlin E.; Bard, Edouard (2007). "A calendar chronology for Pleistocene mammoth and horse extinction in North America based on Bayesian radiocarbon calibration". Quaternary Science Reviews 26 (17–18): 2031. doi:10.1016/j.quascirev.2007.06.013. </ref> Another theory points to climate change, noting that approximately 12,500 years ago, the grasses characteristic of a steppe ecosystem gave way to shrub tundra, which was covered with unpalatable plants.<ref name="LeQuire">LeQuire, Elise (2004-01-04). "No Grass, No Horse" (registration required). The Horse, online edition. http://www.thehorse.com/ViewArticle.aspx?ID=4849. Retrieved 2009-06-08. </ref>

[edit] Wild species surviving into modern times

A truly wild horse is a species or subspecies with no ancestors that were ever domesticated. Therefore, most "wild" horses today are actually feral horses, animals that escaped or were turned loose from domestic herds and the descendants of those animals.<ref name=Olsen46>Olsen, "Horse Hunters of the Ice Age", Horses Through Time, p. 46</ref> Only one truly wild horse species (Equus ferus) with two subspecies, the Tarpan and the Przewalski's Horse, survived into recorded history.

The only true wild horse alive today is the Przewalski's Horse (Equus ferus przewalskii), named after the Russian explorer Nikolai Przhevalsky. It is a rare Asian animal, also known as the Mongolian Wild Horse; Mongolian people know it as the taki, and the Kyrgyz people call it a kirtag. The species was presumed extinct in the wild between 1969 and 1992, while a small breeding population survived in zoos around the world. In 1992, it was reestablished in the wild due to the conservation efforts of numerous zoos.<ref>"An extraordinary return from the brink of extinction for worlds last wild horse". ZSL Press Releases. Zoological Society of London. 2005-12-19. http://www.zsl.org/info/media/press-releases/null,1790,PR.html. Retrieved 2008-04-29. </ref> Today, a small wild breeding population exists in Mongolia.<ref>"Home". The Foundation for the Preservation and Protection of the Przewalski Horse. http://www.treemail.nl/takh/. Retrieved 2008-04-03. </ref><ref name=Dohner298>Dohner "Equines: Natural History" Encyclopedia of Historic Livestock and Poultry Breeds pp. 298–299</ref> There are additional animals still maintained at zoos throughout the world.

The Tarpan or European Wild Horse (Equus ferus ferus) was found in Europe and much of Asia. It survived into the historical era, but became extinct in 1909, when the last captive died in a Russian zoo.<ref name=Dohner300>Dohner "Equines: Natural History" Encyclopedia of Historic Livestock and Poultry Breeds p. 300</ref> Thus, the genetic line was lost. Attempts have been made to recreate the Tarpan,<ref name=Dohner300/><ref name=OSU>"Tarpan". Breeds of Livestock. Oklahoma State University. http://www.ansi.okstate.edu/breeds/horses/tarpan/. Retrieved January 13, 2009. </ref><ref>"Ponies from the past?: Oregon couple revives prehistoric Tarpan horses". The Daily Courier. June 21, 2002. http://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=894&dat=20020621&id=YiALAAAAIBAJ&sjid=yFIDAAAAIBAJ&pg=6481,3069519. Retrieved 2009-10-21. </ref> which resulted in horses with outward physical similarities, but nonetheless descended from domesticated ancestors and not true wild horses.

Periodically, populations of horses in isolated areas are speculated to be relic populations of wild horses, but generally have been proven to be feral or domestic. For example, the Riwoche horse of Tibet was proposed as such,<ref name=Dohner298/> but testing did not reveal genetic differences with domesticated horses,<ref name=Tibet>Peissel, Tibet, p. 36</ref> Similarly, the Sorraia of Spain was proposed as a direct descendant of the Tarpan based on shared characteristics,<ref name=Royo>Royo, L.J., I. Álvarez, A. Beja-Pereira, A. Molina, I. Fernández, J. Jordana, E. Gómez, J. P. Gutiérrez, and F. Goyache (2005). "The Origins of Iberian Horses Assessed via Mitochondrial DNA". Journal of Heredity 96 (6): 663–669. doi:10.1093/jhered/esi116. PMID 16251517. http://jhered.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/full/96/6/663#TBL2. Retrieved 2008-12-15. </ref><ref name=Edwards>Edwards, Elwyn Hartley (1994). The Encyclopedia of the Horse (1st American ed.). New York, NY: Dorling Kindersley. pp. 104–105. ISBN 1564586146. </ref> but genetic studies have shown that the Sorraia is more closely related to other horse breeds and that the outward similarity is an unreliable measure of relatedness.<ref name=Royo/><ref name=Lira/>

[edit] Other modern equids

Besides the horse, there are seven other species of genus Equus in the Equidae family. These are the ass or donkey, Equus asinus; the mountain zebra, Equus zebra; plains zebra, Equus burchelli; Grévy's zebra, Equus grevyi; the kiang, Equus kiang; and the onager, Equus hemionus.<ref>Pallas (1775). "Equus hemionus". Wilson & Reeder's mammal species of the world. Bucknell University. http://www.bucknell.edu/MSW3/browse.asp?id=14100020. Retrieved September 1, 2010. </ref>

Horses can crossbreed with other members of their genus. The most common hybrid is the mule, a cross between a "jack" (male donkey) and a mare. A related hybrid, a hinny, is a cross between a stallion and a jenny (female donkey).<ref>"Mule Information". BMS Website. British Mule Society. http://www.britishmulesociety.org.uk/. Retrieved 2008-07-10. </ref> Other hybrids include the zorse, a cross between a zebra and a horse.<ref>"Zebra hybrid is cute surprise". BBC News. June 26, 2001. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/1408717.stm. Retrieved 2010-02-06. </ref> With rare exceptions, most hybrids are sterile and cannot reproduce.<ref>"Befuddling Birth: The Case of the Mule's Foal". All Things Considered. National Public Radio. http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=12260255. Retrieved 2008-08-16. </ref>

[edit] Domestication

Domestication of the horse most likely took place in central Asia prior to 3500 BC. Two major sources of information are used to determine where and when the horse was first domesticated and how the domesticated horse spread around the world. The first source is based on palaeological and archaeological discoveries, the second source is a comparison of DNA obtained from modern horses to that from bones and teeth of ancient horse remains.

The earliest archaeological evidence for the domestication of the horse comes from sites in Ukraine and Kazakhstan, dating to approximately 3500–4000 BC.<ref>Outram, A.K., Stear, N.A., Bendrey, R., Olsen, S., Kasparov, A., Zaibert, V., Thorpe, N. and Evershed, R.P. 2009 The Earliest Horse Harnessing and Milking Science. 323(5919): 1332–1335</ref><ref>Matossian Shaping World History p. 43 See also: "Horsey-aeology, Binary Black Holes, Tracking Red Tides, Fish Re-evolution, Walk Like a Man, Fact or Fiction". Quirks and Quarks Podcast with Bob Macdonald (CBC Radio). 2009-03-07. http://www.cbc.ca/quirks/episode/2009/03/07/horsey-aeology-binary-black-holes-tracking-red-tides-fish-re-evolution-walk-like-a-man-fact-or-ficti/. Retrieved 2010-09-18. </ref> By 3000 BC, the horse was completely domesticated and by 2000 BC there was a sharp increase in the number of horse bones found in human settlements in northwestern Europe, indicating the spread of domesticated horses throughout the continent.<ref>Evans Horse Breeding and Management p.56</ref> The most recent, but most irrefutable evidence of domestication comes from sites where horse remains were interred with chariots in graves of the Sintashta and Petrovka cultures c. 2100 BC.<ref name="Kuznetsov2006">Kuznetsov, P. F. (2006). "The emergence of Bronze Age chariots in eastern Europe". Antiquity 80: 638–645. http://antiquity.ac.uk/ant/080/ant0800638.htm. </ref>

Domestication is also studied by using the genetic material of present day horses and comparing it with the genetic material present in the bones and teeth of horse remains found in archaeological and palaeological excavations. The variation in the genetic material shows that very few wild stallions contributed to the domestic horse,<ref name=Lau>Lau, A. N., Peng, L., Goto, H., Chemnick, L., Ryder, O. A. & Makova, K. D. (2009). "Horse Domestication and Conservation Genetics of Przewalski's Horse Inferred from Sex Chromosomal and Autosomal Sequences". Molecular Biology and Evolution 26 (1): 199–208. doi:10.1093/molbev/msn239. PMID 18931383. </ref><ref name="Lindgren2004">Lindgren, Gabriella; Niclas Backström, June Swinburne, Linda Hellborg, Annika Einarsson, Kaj Sandberg, Gus Cothran, Carles Vilà, Matthew Binns & Hans Ellegren (2004). "Limited number of patrilines in horse domestication". Nature Genetics 36 (4): 335–336. doi:10.1038/ng1326. PMID 15034578. </ref> while many mares were part of early domesticated herds.<ref name=Lira>Lira, Jaime, et.al. (2010). "Ancient DNA reveals traces of Iberian Neolithic and Bronze Age lineages in modern Iberian horses". Molecular Ecology 19 (1): 64–78. doi:10.1111/j.1365-294X.2009.04430.x. PMID 19943892. http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/123191525/PDFSTART. </ref><ref name="Vila2001">Vilà, C.; et al. (2001). "Widespread origins of domestic horse lineages". Science 291 (5503): 474–477. doi:10.1126/science.291.5503.474. PMID 11161199. </ref><ref name=Cai>Cai, D. W.; Tang, Z. W.; Han, L.; Speller, C. F.; Yang, D. Y. Y.; Ma, X. L.; Cao, J. E.; Zhu, H. et al. (2009). "Ancient DNA provides new insights into the origin of the Chinese domestic horse". Journal of Archaeological Science 36: 835–842. doi:10.1016/j.jas.2008.11.006. </ref> This is reflected in the difference in genetic variation between the DNA that is passed on along the paternal, or sire line (Y-chromosome) versus that passed on along the maternal, or dam line (mitochondrial DNA). There are very low levels of Y-chromosome variability,<ref name=Lau/><ref name="Lindgren2004" /> but a great deal of genetic variation in mitochondrial DNA.<ref name=Lira/><ref name="Vila2001"/><ref name=Cai/> There is also regional variation in mitochondrial DNA due to the inclusion of wild mares in domestic herds.<ref name=Lira/><ref name="Vila2001"/><ref name=Cai/><ref>Olsen, Sandra L. (2006). "Early Horse Domestication: Weighing the Evidence". In Olsen, Sandra L; Grant, Susan; Choyke, Alice M.; Bartosiewicz, Laszlo. Horses & Humans: The Evolution of Human-Equine Relationships. Oxford, UK: Archaeopress. pp. 81–113. ISBN 1-84171-990-0. </ref> Another characteristic of domestication is an increase in coat color variation.<ref>Epstein, H. 1955 Domestication Features in Animals as Functions of Human Society Agricultural History Society. 29(4): 137-146</ref> In horses, this increased dramatically between 5000 and 3000 BC.<ref name=coatColor>Ludwig, A.; Pruvost, M.; Reissmann, M.; Benecke, N.; Brockmann, G.A.; Castanos, P.; Cieslak, M.; Lippold, S. et al. (2009). "Coat Color Variation at the Beginning of Horse Domestication". Science 324 (5926): 485–485. doi:10.1126/science.1172750. </ref>

Before the availability of DNA techniques to resolve the questions related to the domestication of the horse, various hypothesis were proposed. One classification was based on body types and conformation, suggesting the presence of four basic prototypes that had adapted to their environment prior to domestication.<ref name="Bennett7">Bennett, Conquerors, p.7</ref> Another hypothesis held that the four prototypes originated from a single wild species and that all different body types were entirely a result of selective breeding after domestication.<ref>Edwards, G. The Arabian, pp 1, 3</ref> However, the lack of a detectable substructure in the horse has resulted in a rejection of both hypotheses.

[edit] Feral populations

Feral horses are born and live in the wild, but are descended from domesticated animals.<ref name=Olsen46/> Many populations of feral horses exist throughout the world.<ref>Edwards, The Encyclopedia of the Horse, p. 291</ref><ref>Anthony, "Bridling Horse Power: The Domestication of the Horse", Horses Through Time, pp. 66–67</ref> Studies of feral herds have provided useful insights into the behavior of prehistoric horses,<ref>Olsen, Sandra L.. "Horses in Prehistory". Anthropology Research. Carnegie Museum of Natural History. Archived from the original on May 25, 2008. http://web.archive.org/web/20080525183100/http://www.carnegiemnh.org/anthro/olsen_horse.html. Retrieved 2008-08-16. </ref> as well as greater understanding of the instincts and behaviors that drive horses that live in domesticated conditions.<ref>Lesté-Lasserre, Christa (October 7, 2009). "Mares' Social Bonds Might Enhance Reproductive Success" (Registration required). The Horse. http://www.thehorse.com/ViewArticle.aspx?ID=15037&src=RA. Retrieved 2009-10-21. </ref>

[edit] Breeds

Horse breeds are groups of horses with distinctive characteristics that are transmitted consistently to their offspring, such as conformation, color, performance ability, or disposition. These inherited traits result from a combination of natural crosses and artificial selection methods. Horses have been selectively bred since their domestication. Breeds developed due to a need for "form to function", the necessity to develop certain characteristics in order to perform a particular type of work.<ref name=Sponenberg155>Sponenberg, "The Proliferation of Horse Breeds", Horses Through Time, p. 155</ref> Thus, powerful but refined breeds such as the Andalusian developed as riding horses that also had a great aptitude for dressage,<ref name=Sponenberg155/> while heavy draft horses such as the Clydesdale developed out of a need to perform demanding farm work and pull heavy wagons.<ref>Sponenberg, "The Proliferation of Horse Breeds", Horses Through Time, pp. 156–57</ref> Other horse breeds developed specifically for light agricultural work, carriage and road work, various sport disciplines, or simply as pets.<ref name=Spon162>Sponenberg, "The Proliferation of Horse Breeds", Horses Through Time, p. 162</ref> Some breeds developed through centuries of crossings with other breeds, while others, such as Tennessee Walking Horses and Morgans, descended from a single foundation sire. There are more than 300 horse breeds in the world today.<ref>Hedge Horse Conformation pp. 307–308</ref>

However, the concept of purebred bloodstock and a controlled, written breed registry only became of significant importance in modern times. Sometimes purebred horses are called Thoroughbreds, which is incorrect; "Thoroughbred" is a specific breed of horse, while a "purebred" is a horse (or any other animal) with a defined pedigree recognized by a breed registry.<ref name=Ensminger424>Ensminger Horses and Horsemanship p. 424</ref> An early example of people who practiced selective horse breeding were the Bedouin, who had a reputation for careful practices, keeping extensive pedigrees of their Arabian horses and placing great value upon pure bloodlines.<ref>Edwards The Arabian, pp. 22–23</ref> These pedigrees were originally transmitted via an oral tradition.<ref>"Is Purity the Issue?". WAHO Publication Number 21 January 1998. World Arabian Horse Organization. http://www.waho.org/History.html. Retrieved 2008-04-29. </ref> In the 14th century, Carthusian monks of southern Spain kept meticulous pedigrees of bloodstock lineages still found today in the Andalusian horse.<ref>"Andalusian". Breeds of Livestock. Oklahoma State University. http://www.ansi.okstate.edu/breeds/horses/andalusian/index.htm. Retrieved 2008-04-29. </ref> One of the earliest formal registries was General Stud Book for Thoroughbreds, which began in 1791 and traced back to the foundation bloodstock for the breed.<ref>"History of Thoroughbreds". Britishhorseracing.com. British Horseracing Authority. http://www.britishhorseracing.com/goracing/racing/racehorses/history.asp. Retrieved 2008-04-03. </ref>

[edit] Interaction with humans

Worldwide, horses play a role within human cultures and have done so for millennia. Horses are used for leisure activities, sports, and working purposes. The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) estimates that in 2008, there were almost 59,000,000 horses in the world, with around 33,500,000 in the Americas, 13,800,000 in Asia and 6,300,000 in Europe and smaller portions in Africa and Oceania. There are estimated to be 9,500,000 horses in the United States alone.<ref>"FAO Stat — Live Animals". Food and Agriculture Organization. December 16, 2009. http://faostat.fao.org/site/573/DesktopDefault.aspx?PageID=573#ancor. Retrieved 2010-02-05. </ref> The American Horse Council estimates that horse-related activities have a direct impact on the economy of the United States of over $39 billion, and when indirect spending is considered, the impact is over $102 billion.<ref>"Most Comprehensive Horse Study Ever Reveals A Nearly $40 Billion Impact On The U.S. Economy" (PDF). American Horse Council Press Release. American Horse Council. Archived from the original on June 25, 2006. http://web.archive.org/web/20060625083812/http://www.cthorsecouncil.org/AHC2005JuneEconStudy.pdf. Retrieved 2005-06-20. </ref> In a 2004 "poll" conducted by Animal Planet, more than 50,000 viewers from 73 countries voted for the horse as the world's 4th favorite animal.<ref name=IOL>"Tiger tops dog as world's favourite animal". Independent Online. Independent. http://www.int.iol.co.za/index.php?newslett=1&em=28164a99a20041206ah&click_id=29&art_id=qw1102325040750B216&set_id=1. Retrieved 2008-04-03. </ref>

Communication between human and horse is paramount in any equestrian activity;<ref name="Olsen"/> to aid this process horses are usually ridden with a saddle on their backs to assist the rider with balance and positioning, and a bridle or related headgear to assist the rider in maintaining control.<ref>Edwards, Horses, pp. 32–34</ref> Sometimes horses are ridden without a saddle,<ref>Self, Riding Simplified, p. 55</ref> and occasionally, horses are trained to perform without a bridle or other headgear.<ref>Thorson "Rugged Lark" Legends 7 p. 218</ref> Many horses are also driven, which requires a harness, bridle, and some type of vehicle.<ref>Mettler, Horse Sense, pp. 47–54</ref>

[edit] Sport

Historically, equestrians honed their skills through games and races. Equestrian sports provided entertainment for crowds and honed the excellent horsemanship that was needed in battle. Many sports, such as dressage, eventing and show jumping, have origins in military training, which were focused on control and balance of both horse and rider. Other sports, such as rodeo, developed from practical skills such as those needed on working ranches and stations. Sport hunting from horseback evolved from earlier practical hunting techniques.<ref name="Olsen">Olsen, "In the Winner's Circle", Horses Through Time, pp. 105, 111–113, 121</ref> Horse racing of all types evolved from impromptu competitions between riders or drivers. All forms of competition, requiring demanding and specialized skills from both horse and rider, resulted in the systematic development of specialized breeds and equipment for each sport. The popularity of equestrian sports through the centuries has resulted in the preservation of skills that would otherwise have disappeared after horses stopped being used in combat.<ref>Olsen, "In the Winner's Circle", Horses Through Time, p. 105</ref>

Horses are trained to be ridden or driven in a variety of sporting competitions. Examples include show jumping, dressage, three-day eventing, competitive driving, endurance riding, gymkhana, rodeos, and fox hunting.<ref>Edwards, The Encyclopedia of the Horse, pp. 346–356, 366–371</ref> Horse shows, which have their origins in medieval European fairs, are held around the world. They host a huge range of classes, covering all of the mounted and harness disciplines, as well as "In-hand" classes where the horses are led, rather than ridden, to be evaluated on their conformation. The method of judging varies with the discipline, but winning usually depends on style and ability of both horse and rider.<ref>Edwards, The Encyclopedia of the Horse, pp. 376–377</ref> Sports such as polo do not judge the horse itself, but rather use the horse as a partner for human competitors as a necessary part of the game. Although the horse requires specialized training to participate, the details of its performance are not judged, only the result of the rider's actions—be it getting a ball through a goal or some other task.<ref name=Edwards360>Edwards, The Encyclopedia of the Horse, p. 360</ref> Examples of these sports of partnership between human and horse include jousting, in which the main goal is for one rider to unseat the other,<ref>Collins, Encyclopedia of Traditional British Rural Sports, pp. 173–174</ref> and buzkashi, a team game played throughout Central Asia, the aim being to capture a goat carcass while on horseback.<ref name=Edwards360/>

Horse racing is an equestrian sport and major international industry, watched in almost every nation of the world. There are three types: "flat" racing; steeplechasing, i.e. racing over jumps; and harness racing, where horses trot or pace while pulling a driver in a small, light cart known as a sulky.<ref>Edwards, The Encyclopedia of the Horse, pp. 332–337</ref> A major part of horse racing's economic importance lies in the gambling associated with it.<ref>Campbell, National Gambling Impact Study Commission Final Report, p. 111</ref>

[edit] Work

There are certain jobs that horses do very well, and no technology has yet developed to fully replace them. For example, mounted police horses are still effective for certain types of patrol duties and crowd control.<ref>"Horse Mounted Unit". United States Park Police. National Park Service. http://www.nps.gov/uspp/fhorsepage.htm. Retrieved 2008-04-07. </ref> Cattle ranches still require riders on horseback to round up cattle that are scattered across remote, rugged terrain.<ref>Edwards, The Encyclopedia of the Horse, pp. 226–227</ref> Search and rescue organizations in some countries depend upon mounted teams to locate people, particularly hikers and children, and to provide disaster relief assistance.<ref>"Volunteer Mounted Search and Rescue Unit". Employment. San Benito County Sheriff's Office. http://www.sbcsheriff.org/msru_job.html. Retrieved 2008-07-08. </ref> Horses can also be used in areas where it is necessary to avoid vehicular disruption to delicate soil, such as nature reserves. They may also be the only form of transport allowed in wilderness areas. Horses are quieter than motorized vehicles. Law enforcement officers such as park rangers or game wardens may use horses for patrols, and horses or mules may also be used for clearing trails or other work in areas of rough terrain where vehicles are less effective.<ref>US Forest Service (May 2003). "Success Stories" (PDF). US Department of Agriculture. pp. 4. http://www.fs.fed.us/r9/publications/success_story_updates/2003-05.pdf. Retrieved 2008-04-20. </ref>

Although machinery has replaced horses in many parts of the world, an estimated 100 million horses, donkeys and mules are still used for agriculture and transportation in less developed areas. This number includes around 27 million working in Africa alone.<ref>Brown, Kimberly S. (June 1, 2006). "At Work in Morocco" (Registration required). The Horse. http://www.thehorse.com/ViewArticle.aspx?ID=7001. Retrieved 2009-10-21. </ref> Some land management practices such as cultivating and logging can be efficiently performed with horses. In agriculture, less fossil fuel is used and increased environmental conservation occurs over time with the use of draft animals such as horses.<ref>Gifford, "Working Draught Horses as Singles and Pairs", The Working Horse Manual, p. 85</ref><ref>Miller, Work Horse Handbook, p. 13</ref> Logging with horses and can result in reduced damage to soil structure and less damage to trees due to more selective logging.<ref>Gifford, "Working Horses in Forestry", The Working Horse Manual, p. 145</ref>

[edit] Entertainment and culture

Modern horses are often used to reenact many of their historical work purposes. Horses are used, complete with equipment that is authentic or a meticulously recreated replica, in various live action historical reenactments of specific periods of history, especially recreations of famous battles.<ref>Stoddard, Samuel. "Unit Activities". Co H, 4th Virginia Cavalry. Washington Webworks, LLC. http://www.blackhorsetroop.org/activities/. Retrieved 2008-04-29. </ref> Horses are also used to preserve cultural traditions and for ceremonial purposes. Countries such as the United Kingdom still use horse-drawn carriages to convey royalty and other VIPs to and from certain culturally significant events.<ref>"Transport". British Monarchy. http://www.royal.gov.uk/TheRoyalHousehold/Transport/Transport.aspx. Retrieved 2009-08-30. </ref> Public exhibitions are another example, such as the Budweiser Clydesdales, seen in parades and other public settings, a team of draft horses that pull a beer wagon similar to that used before the invention of the modern motorized truck.<ref>McWilliams, Jeremiah (December 3, 2008). "Anheuser-Busch gives face time to Budweiser Clydesdales". St. Louis Post-Dispatch. http://www.stltoday.com/business/columns/lager-heads/article_98704685-a144-52b1-aba7-7b580e8f8c08.html. Retrieved 2010-09-18. </ref>

Horses are frequently seen in television and films. They are used both as main characters, in films such as Seabiscuit, and Dreamer, and as visual elements that assure the accuracy of historical stories.<ref>Sellnow, Les (March 1, 2006). "Hollywood Horses" (Registration required). The Horse. http://www.thehorse.com/ViewArticle.aspx?ID=6630. Retrieved 2009-10-21. </ref> Both live horses and iconic images of horses are used in advertising to promote a variety of products.<ref>"Trademark Horse – Horses as advertising mediums". Westfälische Pferdemuseum (Westphalian Horse Museum). http://www.hippomaxx-muenster.de/english/sonderausstellung.php?navid=7. Retrieved 2008-08-16. </ref> The horse frequently appears in coats of arms in heraldry. The horse can be represented as standing, walking (passant), trotting, running (courant), rearing (rampant or forcine) or springing (salient). The horse may be saddled and bridled, harnessed, or without any apparel whatsoever.<ref>Fox-Davies, A Complete Guide to Heraldry, p. 201</ref> The horse also appears in the 12-year cycle of animals in the Chinese zodiac related to the Chinese calendar. According to Chinese folklore, each animal is associated with certain personality traits, and those born in the year of the horse are intelligent, independent, and free-spirited.<ref>"Year of the Horse". Chinese Culture Center of San Francisco. http://www.c-c-c.org/chineseculture/zodiac/Horse.html. Retrieved 2007-07-22. </ref>

[edit] Therapeutic use

People of all ages with physical and mental disabilities obtain beneficial results from association with horses. Therapeutic riding is used to mentally and physically stimulate disabled persons and help them improve their lives through improved balance and coordination, increased self-confidence, and a greater feeling of freedom and independence.<ref>Bush, et al., The Principles of Teaching Riding, p. 58</ref> The benefits of equestrian activity for people with disabilities has also been recognized with the addition of equestrian events to the Paralympic Games and recognition of para-equestrian events by the International Federation for Equestrian Sports (FEI).<ref>"About Para Equestrian Dressage". Federation Equestre Internationale. http://www.fei.org/disciplines/dressage/about-para-equestrian-dressage. Retrieved 2010-03-07. </ref> Hippotherapy and therapeutic horseback riding are names for different physical, occupational, and speech therapy treatment strategies that utilize equine movement. In hippotherapy, a therapist uses the horse's movement to improve their patient's cognitive, coordination, balance, and fine motor skills, whereas therapeutic horseback riding uses specific riding skills.<ref>"Frequently Asked Questions About Hippotherapy" (PDF). FAQ – AHA, April 2005. American Hippotherapy Association. Archived from the original on September 19, 2007. http://web.archive.org/web/20070919090815/http://www.narha.org/PDFFiles/FAQ_Hippotherapy.pdf. Retrieved 2008-07-08. </ref>

Horses also provide psychological benefits to people whether they actually ride or not. "Equine-assisted" or "equine-facilitated" therapy is a form of experiential psychotherapy that uses horses as companion animals to assist people with mental illness, including anxiety disorders, psychotic disorders, mood disorders, behavioral difficulties, and those who are going through major life changes.<ref>"Equine Facilitated Psychotherapy (EFP) Fact Sheet". Equine Facilitated Mental Health Association. Archived from the original on April 30, 2008. http://web.archive.org/web/20080430025532/http://www.narha.org/SecEFMHA/FactSheet.asp. Retrieved 2008-07-08. </ref> There are also experimental programs using horses in prison settings. Exposure to horses appears to improve the behavior of inmates and help reduce recidivism when they leave.<ref>Wise, Mike (2003-08-10). "Partners, Horse and Man, in Prison Pasture". New York Times. http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9404E6D91331F933A2575BC0A9659C8B63. Retrieved 2008-07-08. </ref>

[edit] Warfare

Horses in warfare have been seen for most of recorded history. The first archaeological evidence of horses used in warfare dates to between 4000 to 3000 BC,<ref name="Science Show">Newby, Jonica, Jared Diamond and David Anthony (1999-11-13). "The Horse in History". The Science Show. Radio National. http://www.abc.net.au/rn/science/ss/stories/s70986.htm. Retrieved 2008-07-17. </ref> and the use of horses in warfare was widespread by the end of the Bronze Age.<ref name="Hartwick">Anthony, David W. and Dorcas R. Brown. "The Earliest Horseback Riding and its Relation to Chariotry and Warfare". Harnessing Horsepower. Institute for Ancient Equestrian Studies. http://users.hartwick.edu/anthonyd/harnessing%20horsepower.html. Retrieved 2007-10-09. </ref><ref name=Whitaker30>Whitaker The Horse pp. 30–31</ref> Although mechanization has largely replaced the horse as a weapon of war, horses are still seen today in limited military uses, mostly for ceremonial purposes, or for reconnaissance and transport activities in areas of rough terrain where motorized vehicles are ineffective. Horses have been used in the 21st century by the Janjaweed militias in the War in Darfur.<ref>Lacey, Marc (2004-05-04). "In Sudan, Militiamen on Horses Uproot a Million". The New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2004/05/04/international/africa/04DARF.html?ex=1399003200&en=b72ea0a4b892076d&ei=5007&partner=USERLAND. Retrieved 2011-01-04. </ref>

[edit] Products

Horses are raw material for many products made by humans throughout history, including byproducts from the slaughter of horses as well as materials collected from living horses.

Products collected from living horses include mare's milk, used by people with large horse herds, such as the Mongols, who let it ferment to produce kumis.<ref name=NewYorker>Frazier, Ian. "Invaders: Destroying Baghdad". The New Yorker (CondeNet). http://www.newyorker.com/archive/2005/04/25/050425fa_fact4. Retrieved 2008-04-03. </ref> Horse blood was once used as food by the Mongols and other nomadic tribes, who found it a convenient source of nutrition when traveling. Drinking their own horses' blood allowed the Mongols to ride for extended periods of time without stopping to eat.<ref name=NewYorker/> Today, the drug Premarin is a mixture of estrogens extracted from the urine of pregnant mares (pregnant mares' urine). It is a widely used drug for hormone replacement therapy.<ref>"The Facts About Premarin". Issues Facing Equines. The Humane Society of the United States. http://www.hsus.org/horses_equines/issues/the_facts_about_premarin.html. Retrieved 2008-04-03. </ref> The tail hair of horses can be used for making bows for string instruments such as the violin, viola, cello, and double bass.<ref>McCutcheon, Marc (2000). Descriptionary: A Thematic Dictionary (Second ed.). New York: Checkmark Books (Facts On File imprint). p. 285. ISBN 0-8160-4105-9. </ref>

Horse meat has been used as food for humans and carnivorous animals throughout the ages. It is eaten in many parts of the world, though consumption is taboo in some cultures.<ref name=USDA>"U.S.D.A. Promotes Horse & Goat Meat". I.G.H.A./HorseAid's U.S.D.A. Report. U.S. Department of Agriculture. http://www.igha.org/USDA.html. Retrieved 2008-04-03. </ref> Horsemeat has been an export industry in the United States and other countries,<ref name=USDA/> though legislation has periodically been introduced in the United States Congress which would end export from the United States.<ref>Coile, Zachary (2006-09-08). "House votes to outlaw slaughter of horses for human consumption". SF Gate (San Francisco Chronicle). http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?file=/c/a/2006/09/08/MNGI9L1RMK1.DTL. Retrieved 2008-04-03. </ref> Horsehide leather has been used for boots, gloves, jackets,<ref name="by-product">Ockerman Animal By-product Processing & Utilization p. 129</ref> baseballs,<ref>"Inside a Modern Baseball". Baseball Fever. Baseball Almanac. http://www.baseball-fever.com/showthread.php?p=309566. Retrieved 2008-04-03. </ref> and baseball gloves. Horse hooves can also be used to produce animal glue.<ref>Bartlett, Keeping House, pp. 34–35</ref> Horse bones can be used to make implements.<ref>MacGregor Bone, Antler, Ivory and Horn p. 31</ref> Specifically, in Italian cuisine, the horse tibia is sharpened into a probe called a spinto, which is used to test the readiness of a (pig) ham as it cures.<ref>Fort Eating Up Italy p. 171</ref> In Asia, the saba is a horsehide vessel used in the production of kumis.<ref>Hurd, Diseases of the Stomach and Intestines, p. 29</ref>

[edit] Care

Horses are grazing animals, and their major source of nutrients is good-quality forage from hay or pasture.<ref>Kellon, Eleanor (June 2008). "Focus on Feed Costs". Horse Journal 16 (6): 11–12. </ref> They can consume approximately 2% to 2.5% of their body weight in dry feed each day. Therefore, a 450-kilogram (990 lb) adult horse could eat up to 11 kilograms (24 lb) of food.<ref name="Penn">Hall, Marvin H. and Patricia M. Comerford (1992). "Pasture and Hay for Horses – Agronomy Facts 32" (PDF). Cooperative Extension Service. University of Pennsylvania. http://pubs.cas.psu.edu/FreePubs/pdfs/uc099.pdf. Retrieved 2007-02-14. </ref> Sometimes, concentrated feed such as grain is fed in addition to pasture or hay, especially when the animal is very active.<ref>Giffin Horse Owner's Veterinary Handbook pp. 476–477</ref> When grain is fed, equine nutritionists recommend that 50% or more of the animal's diet by weight should still be forage.<ref name="Feeding factors">"Feeding Factors". Horse Nutrition. Ohio State University. http://ohioline.osu.edu/b762/b762_12.html. Retrieved 2007-02-09. </ref>

Horses require a plentiful supply of clean water, a minimum of 10 US gallons (38 L) to 12 US gallons (45 L) per day.<ref>Giffin Horse Owner's Veterinary Handbook p. 455</ref> Although horses are adapted to live outside, they require shelter from the wind and precipitation, which can range from a simple shed or shelter to an elaborate stable.<ref>Giffin Horse Owner's Veterinary Handbook p. 482</ref>

Horses require routine hoof care from a farrier, as well as vaccinations to protect against various diseases, and dental examinations from a veterinarian or a specialized equine dentist.<ref>Giffin Horse Owner's Veterinary Handbook p. 62,168,310</ref> If horses are kept inside in a barn, they require regular daily exercise for their physical health and mental well-being.<ref>"General Horse Care Guidelines". Horses: Companions for Life. Humane Society of the United States. http://www.hsus.org/horses_equines/companions/general_horse_care_guidelines.html. Retrieved 2008-04-22. </ref> When turned outside, they require well-maintained, sturdy fences to be safely contained.<ref>Wheeler Horse Stable and Riding Arena Design p. 215</ref> Regular grooming is also helpful to help the horse maintain good health of the hair coat and underlying skin.<ref>Giffin Horse Owner's Veterinary Handbook p. 90</ref>

[edit] See also

• List of horse breeds
• Glossary of equestrian terms

[edit] References

[edit] Sources

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