Indian caste system
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The Indian caste system is the traditional hereditary system of social stratification of India, in which social classes are defined by a number of hierarchical endogamous groups often termed as Jāti. Not only Hindus but Muslims, Sikhs and Christians too practice it (ref. Francis Buchanan, Indian Census Record, 1883). As Islam, Sikhism, and Christianity gained influence in the Indian subcontinent, Hindu converts would often retain their caste customs. The Indian caste system was historically linked to Hinduism through the use of scripture such as the Manusmriti. The Manusmriti is not necessarily regarded as "divine proclamation" and is regarded as the work of man. The normative texts in Hinduism such as the Vedas mention the concept of the Brahmin but do not canonically allude to any socially mandated caste system.
[edit] Caste divisions
It is difficult to define how castes are divided. However, there are two main sources:
- Early British Census Records
- Interpretations of the Manusmriti
British Census Officers determined caste hierarchy based on the principle, e.g. someone who accepts food and water from another person but the other person does not reciprocate the same way, then the other person is superior to the former. It was contested at many places (a notable example is that the Koris of UP who said they won't accept water from Brahmins, and so should be placed higher than them). Because it was met with rampant controversies, arbitration was very common during those days. The most notable arbitration stories are:
It raised more questions than it answered and subsequent census records varied radically, making it free for all, after some time.
Manusmriti is considered as the most ancient and authentic source regarding origin and hierarchy of castes. Though it answers most of the questions, it is ambiguous at most places.Other accounts which throw light on social structure in past are:
- Arthasastra by Kautilya
- Indica by Megasthenese
- Travel account by Fa-Xien
- Travel account by Alberuni
- Travel account by Ibn Battuta.
Caste division among Muslims was determined according to ancestry. One with ancestry matching with invaders were considered superior to converts.
Some castes are based on occupation. For example, goldsmiths, carpenters, and barbers each form separate sub-castes. Often, a sub-caste with a significant number of members will be divided into further subcastes. This further division may be due to:
- Geographical separation: For example, there are purabia (eastern) and pachchaia (western) sections of some castes.
- Variation in standards of conduct: For example, disagreements over the permissibility of widow marriages have caused some castes to subdivide.
[edit] Varnas (Classes) and Jātis (Castes)
- For more details on this topic, see Varnas.
- For more details on this topic, see Jāti.
Although Varna Jāti and caste sounds synonymous, they have different connotations. Varna is mentioned as caste equivalent in scriptures. Puranas use it in the context of skin colour too. Puranic deities are often described as belonging to Shwet or "Gaur" meaning white and Shyam meaning black varnas. Scriptures describe Varnas as classification based on profession too. Manusmriti identified four varnas in Indian society. These are Brahmin, Kshatriya, Vaishya, and Shudra according to origin. However, Lord Krishna in Bhagwad Gita says Varna are according to Karma (work) nothing to do with origin.
Theoretically, according to the Manusmriti, every caste belongs to one of the four varnas (Brahmin, Kshtriya, Vaishya, and Shudra). However, the division of Indian society into four castes was a generalization rarely held in practice. Consequently, there have been many disputes about the varna of many castes, such as castes being considered Kshatriya by some scholars, while described as Shudra by others. While texts such as the Manusmriti attempted to rationalize ambiguous castes by placing them in varna-sankaras (i.e. mixed varna), the fact remains that Indian society was, and is, composed of numerous geographically diversified but endogamous groups. With many occupational groups practicing endogamy within a particular region, as well as numerous sub-divisions within the four main castes, a more complex system of subcastes and jātis is evident. The jatis have broken up into clans like Agarwal, Iyer, etc.
Unlike the varna system of Brahmins, which requires spiritual purity in order to ascend, a jāti is able to move up or down the social hierarchy based on the aspirations of its members. Marriages are usually arranged within one's own sub-caste; however, they may occur between two affiliated sub-castes, or two sub-castes that are in the same region, and are as such termed intercaste marriages. Over time, this grew more and more rigid, until every aspect was determined by birth, with various "justifications" as described below.
To simplify the perspective, often people use the classification based on Four varnas, given in Manusmriti and other dharma-shastras: The Brahmins (Teachers, Scholars and Priests), The Khshatriyas (Kings and warriors), the Vaishyas (Traders, Landowners and some Artisan groups), and Shudras (Agriculturists, Service providers, and some Artisan groups). There was another group, which was excluded from the main society, for various reasons, which was called Parjanya or Antyaja; these were the people called untouchables. The varnas (rather than Jatis), was used after the 1902 Census by the British, for consolidation of demographic data into manageable proportions. However no commonly agreed approach for classifying the castes into the four varnas exists, sometimes a caste may claim to be a Brahmin, but others may regard it to be a Vaishya.
In the past, members of different castes would not partake in various activities, such as dining and religious gatherings, together. In addition, the performance of religious rites and rituals were restricted to Brahmins, who were the designated priesthood. In recent years, more egalitarian reforms have enabled lower castes and even non-castes such as the Dalits to become religious clerics. The "Pandaram" priests are an example of an order of Dalit priests, based in Nepal<ref name="Hinduismtoday">Nepal's Downtrodden,Hinduism Today</ref> and South India<ref>Moffatt, Michael, An Untouchable Community in South India: Structure and Consensus.Man, New Series, Vol. 15, No. 1 (Mar., 1980), p. 208</ref>. The Pandaram maintain the same tradition as the Brahmin priests, including the use of the Sanskrit language (traditionally reserved for the Brahmins) for the rituals. While they are not generally as well trained as the Brahmin priests, they are highly respected within their community and are addressed with reverence<ref name="Hinduismtoday"/>.
[edit] Mobility among the Castes
Although group mobility was not completely uncommon, individual mobility among castes was generally rare(dubious; discuss) .
While mobility among caste groups was not common, it was not unheard of. Groups of lower-caste individuals could seek to elevate the status of their caste by attempting to emulate the practices of higher castes.
The view of the caste system as "static and unchanging" has been disputed by many scholars. Sociolgists such as Bernard Buber and Marriott McKim describe, for instance, how the perception of the caste system as a static and textual stratification has given way to the perception of the caste system as a more processual, emprical and contextual stratification. Other sociologists such as Y.B Damle have applied theoretical models to explain mobility and flexibility in the caste system in India<ref name="Silverberg Paper"/>.
Sociologist M. N. Srinivas has also debated the question of rigidity in Caste. In an ethnographic study of the Coorgs of Karnataka, he observed considerable flexibility and mobility in their caste heirarchies <ref>Srinivas, M.N, Religion and Society among the Coorgs of South India by MN Srinivas, Page 32 (Oxford, 1952)</ref><ref>Caste in Modern India; And other essays: Page 48. (Media Promoters & Publishers Pvt. Ltd, Bombay; First Published: 1962, 11th Reprint: 1994)</ref>.He asserts that the caste system is far from a rigid system in which the position of each component caste is fixed for all time. Movement has always been possible, and especially in the middle regions of the hierarchy. It was always possible for groups born into a lower caste to "rise to a higher position by adopting vegetarianism and teetotalism" i.e adopt the customs of the higher castes. While theoretically "forbidden", the process was not uncommon in practice.The concept of sanskritization, or the adoption of upper-caste norms by the lower castes, addressed the actual complexity and fluidity of caste relations.
When it comes to stance of a hereditary caste system, the Manusmriti takes the position:
| As the son of Shudra can attain the rank of a Brahmin, the son of Brahmin can attain rank of a shudra. Even so with him who is born of a Vaishya or a Kshatriya |
| ManuSmriti X:65 |
The above verse is believed to sanction support for vocational non-hereditary caste system, suggesting some flexibility in the propagation of the Castes. According to some economists, mobility across broad caste lines may have been "minimal", though sub-castes (jatis) may change their social status over the generations by fission, re-location, and adoption of new rituals<ref>Social Structure & Mobility in Economic Development, By Neil J. Smelser, Seymour Martin Lipset, Published 2005</ref>.
Historical examples of mobility in the Indian Caste System among Hindus have been researched. The "Noniya" Caste of salt makers have claimed to the higher status of the "Chauhan Rajput". They have risen well above the untouchable line and their leaders have, in the past, mobilized upwards along the caste hierarchy<ref name="Silverberg Paper"> James Silverberg (Nov 1969). "Social Mobility in the Caste System in India: An Interdisciplinary Symposium". The American Journal of Sociology 75 (3): 443-444.</ref>. There is also precedent of certain Shudra families within the temples of the Shrivaishava sect in South India elevating their caste<ref name="Silverberg Paper"/>.
A well-known precedent for mobility in the caste system is that of Shivaji, the founder and monarch of the Maratha Confederacy, who was born into a lower caste but was elevated to a higher caste to facilitate his coronation<ref name = "Singh">
Singh, Patwan (2001). The Sikhs. Doubleday Publishers.
</ref>.
[edit] Theories about the origins of the system
The histories of many of the castes are available in form of an oral tradition. Many of these were recorded in the past few centuries. With the archaeological findings in the last one and half centuries, it is now possible to trace the emergence on several of the specific castes to 11-12th century or even a few centuries earlier. For example, Babb has attempted to trace the history of several castes in Rajasthan in his "Archemies of Violence", based largely on narratives recorded in the past few centuries. Prior to the avaialability of archaeological evidence, the histories of individual castes are often speculative.
One theory is, in its initial period caste system was flexible and it was merit and job based. One could migrate from one caste to other caste by changing one's profession. Evidence in support of it says that Rama's guru Rishi Vashishtha was a shudra and he became rishi later. Also Rishi Valmiki was a dacoit before becoming a sage. Later, the caste system is said to have become rigid, and caste began to be inherited rather than acquired by merit.
According to 19th century theories, the caste system began with the arrival of the Aryans in India. Indo-Aryan culture arrived in India around 1500 BC, around the time of the collapse of the Indus Valley Civilization. The Indo-Aryans arrived in India from Central Asia. European scholars first supposed that they came as invaders, and were contemptuous of their newly-conquered subjects. This was often romanticized as a struggle between the native dark skinned culture and the invading light skinned one. Before the arrival of the Indo-Aryans, the dominant cultural and linguistic group would have been the Dravidians, (see Indus Valley Civilization). The Dravidians were the largest community in India, and are by some scholars identified as the bearers of the Indus Valley Civilization. It was fully developed by 800 BC. It was at first assumed that the Indus Valley Civilization collapsed due to the apparent invasion of the Aryans, but it now seems more likely that the migration of Indo-Aryan culture came about as a result of the diminished power of the Indus Valley Civilization as it was collapsing due to internal pressures, much like the migrations period in Europe was brought on by the weakening of the Roman Empire.
The early Aryans organized among themselves in three groups, much like other Indo-European peoples. The different Jats (sub-castes) who professed different occupations were integrated in different Varnas according to their occupation. According to the invasion theory of caste origin, most of the communities that were in India before the arrival of the Aryans were integrated in the Sudra Varna or were made outcast depending on the professions of these communities. Communities who professed non-polluting jobs were integrated in Sudras Varna. And communities who professed polluting professions were made outcasts or untouchables. Untouchables were not only disallowed to touch the high caste people but they also had to stand at a certain distance from the high castes.
This Aryan Invasion theory is today often claimed to have been formulated to undermine the historical significance of India and its cultural and religious heritage by the British, and subsequently the west[citation needed]. The British historians were writing under a Biblical timeframe where the world began only around 4000 BC. The theory was also exploited by the British to show that they had the right to invade India, as the Indians supposedly themselves were invaders. It indirectly also implied that the "indigenous" people were incapable of creating their religion or culture and that it was brought by outsiders [citation needed]. Recent genetic studies have supported the idea that the invasion did not occur, showing that most north Indians today are primarily of Indian, not Central Asian, descent suggesting that the influx of Indo-Aryan culture was one primarily of language, not genes<ref>India Acquired Language, Not Genes, From West, Study Says, National Geographic</ref>.
[edit] Modern status of the caste system
The caste system was first exposed to the modern Western world during the Portuguese occupation and rule of sections of India. Indeed, the word 'caste' in this context is derived from the Portuguese, casta. Later, other European empires, including the British, occupied parts of the subcontinent. The anthropologist Herbert Risley's The Tribes and Castes of Bengal, published in 1892, was one of the first works on the caste system in India written by a Western scholar.
[edit] Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes and Other Backward Classes
Independent India officially documented castes and subcastes, primarily to determine those deserving reservation (positive discrimination in education) through the census. The Indian reservation system relies entirely on quotas. The Government lists consist of scheduled castes, scheduled tribes and other backward classes
[edit] Scheduled castes (SC)
- See also: Scheduled castes
Scheduled castes generally consist of former "untouchables" (the term "Dalit" is now preferred). Present population is 16% of total population of India i.e. around 160 million. For example, the Delhi state has 49 castes listed as SC <ref name="DelhiGovt">List of Scheduled Castes Delhi Govt.</ref>.
[edit] Scheduled tribes (ST)
- See also: Scheduled tribes
Scheduled tribes generally consist of tribal people. Present population is 7% of total population of India i.e. around 70 million.
[edit] Other Backward Classes (OBC)
- See also: Other Backward Class
Other backward classes generally consist of cultivators, pastoralists, artisans, etc. The Mandal Commission has covered more than 3000 castes under OBC Category. According to the Mandal Commission, the present population of OBC's is approximately 52% of the population. The Mandal Commission has since been criticized for fabricating data. The National Sample Survey puts the figure at 32% <ref>Reply to SC daunting task for government, Tribune India</ref>. For example, Delhi places 53 castes in this group <ref name="DelhiGovt"/>. There is substantial debate over the exact number of OBC's in India, with census data compromised by partisan politics.It is generally estimated to be sizable, but lower than the figures quoted by either the Mandal Commission or and national Sample Survey<ref>What is India's population of other backward classes?,Yahoo News</ref>.
Some Indian states are dominated by caste-based politics. Sometimes converts to other religions, such as Christianity or Islam, retain their caste identity, often due to the economic benefits it carries, and also to retain their ties with the community for social reasons. This practice, however, is often frowned upon by members of the same sub-caste.
[edit] Contemporary criticism of the Caste System
There has been strong criticism <ref>India's caste system discriminates</ref> of the caste system existing in India. Some activists consider that the caste system is a form of racial discrimination.<ref name="npr">An Untouchable Subject?</ref> The participants of the United Nations Conference Against Racism in Durban, South Africa in March 2001, condemned the discrimination due to the caste system, and stated that caste as a basis for the segregation and oppression of peoples in terms of their descent and occupation is a form of apartheid.<ref>Final Declaration of the Global Conference Against Racism and Caste-based Discrimination</ref>.
The Indian government denies the claims of equivalency between Caste and Racial discrimination, pointing out that the caste issues as essentially intra-racial and intra-cultural. Indian Attorney General Soli Sorabjee insisted that "The only reason India wants caste discrimination kept off the agenda is that it will distract participants from the main topic: racism. Caste discrimination in India is undeniable but caste and race are entirely distinct." <ref name="npr"/>.
In India, <ref>India - A Country Study, USA Library of Congress, 1995, Chapter 5</ref> some observers felt that the caste system must be viewed as a system of exploitation of poor low-ranking groups by more prosperous high-ranking groups. In many parts of India, land is largely held by dominant castes high-ranking owners of property that economically exploit low-ranking landless labourers and poor artisans, all the while degrading them with ritual emphases on their so-called god-given inferior status.
Matt Cherry, <ref>Matt Cherry, "Humanism In India", Free Inquiry magazine, Vol 16 Num 4</ref> claims that karma underpins the caste system, and the caste system traditionally determines the position and role of every member of Hindu society. Caste determines an individual's place in society, the work he or she may carry out, and who he or she may marry and meet. According to him, Hindus believe that the karma of previous life will determine the caste an individual will be (re)born into.
[edit] Examples of Caste based incidents
[edit] Violence against Untouchables or Dalits in rural Tamil-Nadu
In 2000, three young men belonging to the Dalit undercaste were killed in the Cuddalore district of Tamil Nadu. This fuelled some localized violence in the caste-sensitive region, which has seen numerous caste-related incidents in which the majority of the victims have been Dalits. Six of the killings have been registered as murders under the Indian Penal Code and others as "Deaths under suspicious circumstances". No arrests have been made in these cases. However, several Dalits have been arrested as "goondas" (gangsters). The Chief minister of Tamil-Nadu, M. Karunanidhi, has been accused of having an "anti-Dalit" bias by the radical organization "Dalit Panthers of India". Theories concerning these crimes against Dalits range from "alcohol bootleggers opposing prohibition movements among Dalits" to "inter-caste relations between an upper-caste Vanniya boy and a Dalit girl". Political parties sympathetic to the Dalits have protested against these incidents<ref>Victims of bias,The Hindu</ref> and have alleged systemic biases against Dalits in several parts of the country.
[edit] Bant Singh from Punjab
On the evening of January 5, 2006 Bant Singh, a poor Dalit, was attacked by unknown assailants. His injuries necessitated medical amputation. He alleges that this was in retaliation for actively working to secure justice for his daughter, who was gang raped by upper caste members of his village in Punjab five years ago. <ref>Paying a price for securing justice for his daughter, The Hindu</ref> <ref>Bant Singh can still sing, Tehalka Magazine</ref>.
[edit] Caste Brahmins in Tamil Nadu
In Tamil Nadu, the Anti Hindu <ref>We'll oppose DMK's anti-Hindu stance: Munnani</ref> DMK party rose to power, under the canard of "Brahmin oppression", resulting in discrimination against upper caste Brahmins in the state of Tamil Nadu. It is significantly harder to gain college admission into fields such as engineering or medicine, if you are a brahmin, due to the reservation system where 66% (possibly changed to 50% now) of the seats are reserved for people who aren't members of high castes. Many Brahmins allege that Tamil and Brahmins Brahmins have left the state, due to a "hostile atmosphere" prevalent against upper castes in the region<ref>Are Brahmins the Dalits of today?</ref><ref>'We Are Like The Jews: Politics apart, Brahmin-bashing is rampant in literary and cultural worlds too' </ref>.
[edit] Phoolan Devi
Phoolan Devi was a bandit turned politician from a low caste Shudra background. She grew up in a backward part of the country where caste divisions were prominent in society. After facing abuse from a mainly upper-caste law enforcement, she ran away to the deep jungle of her native region south of Agra and became the mistress of a bandit leader. A rival gang from the powerful Bhumihar caste caught them, killed her lover and dragged her to their village. She was publicly raped for days. She would never bear children. After three days she escaped, went back to the jungle and gathered a gang. A year later, 20 of her tormentors were dead. Pursued by the law enforcement authorities, for over two years, she proved difficult to capture. The government of Indira Gandhi and the police finally made a deal with her that she and members of her gang would not face the death penalty[1]. As a part of this arrangement, in 1983 she surrendered on a stage before a crowd of 10,000 people. On July 25, 2001, she was fatally shot in front of her house in New Delhi, allegedly by one Sher Singh Rana, which he claims was retribution for the Behmai massacre. The police, however, are sceptical of his claims[2].
[edit] The status of Untouchables
The untouchable (or Dalit) in Hindu Society was a person who worked in what were seen as unhealthy, polluting work dealing with the dead bodies and animal carcasses, the collection and disposal of bodily waste, and other jobs that brought him/her into constant contact with what society considered disgusting and even dangerous. These occupations,although they were helpful to the society and improved sanitation, were considered unclean and polluted the individual, and such polluted individuals were considered unfit for physical or social contact with the non-polluted, "purer" sections of society. Untouchables used to live separately within a subcultural context of their own, outside the inhabited limits of villages and townships, made pariahs in every sense of the word. No other castes could, or would, interfere with their social life since untouchables were lower in social ranking than even those of the shudra varna.
In the past, extreme poverty drove many untouchables to wear clothing off the bodies of the dead that they handled. In their home they ate from broken dishes discarded by others. Untouchables suffered from many social restrictions. They were not allowed temple worship with others, nor water from the same sources. Person of higher castes would not interact with them. Untouchables were not allowed to use the same wells as the other castes as that would "pollute" the water and indirectly the other castes who drank it. If somehow a member of a higher caste came into physical or social contact with an untouchable, the member of the higher caste was defiled, and had to bathe thoroughly to purge her/himself of the impurity. Such contact even included the shadow of an untouchable falling on the member of the higher caste. At the same time, the untouchables developed their own rich folk traditions with a lifestyle that was unhampered by the variety of restrictions on the rest of the society.
The inclusion of lower castes into the mainstream was argued for by Mahatma Gandhi who called them "Harijans" (people of God). The term Dalit (downtrodden) is used now as the term Harijan is largely felt patronising. Gandhi's contribution toward the emancipation of the untouchables is controversial. This is usually highlighted by the commentary of his contemporary Dr. B.R. Ambedkar, an untouchable himself. Ambedkar was deeply suspicious [citation needed] of Gandhi's motivations and frequently saw his activities as detrimental to the cause of upliftment of his people. For instance, Gandhi, a Vaishya, was not against the caste system [citation needed], but tried hard to bring untouchables into the mainstream of society and get the other castes to discard the practice of untouchability. Ambedkar, influenced by liberal thinkers like Voltaire, was interested in the elimination of the caste system and untouchability altogether. To him, Gandhi's efforts solved no problems of the untouchables as they would remain at the bottom of the hierarchy. [citation needed] Ambedkar suggested that the evils of the caste system would be eliminated if the upper castes (especially the Brahmins) would change their behaviour and eventually get rid of the caste system altogether.
There is a "sub-caste" that today exists even below even the Dalit: the Bhangi. The social status of the hundreds of thousands of Bhangi (approximately 32,000 families in Gujarat alone) has long been a source of contention within Indian society. Upper sub castes among Dalits like dhobi, nai etc. do not intearct with Bhangis, the lowest order among the dalits. They are called untouchable among the untouchables. This is an example of deep set roots of caste system in the Indian psyche. Fortunately, now the caste system is relaxing, especially in metropolition and other major urban areas, due to higher penetration of high education, co-existence of all communities and lesser knowledge about caste system due to alienation with rural roots of people. But in the countryside and small towns, this system is still very rigid<ref>Hell’s Angels, Himal Magazine</ref>.
[edit] Caste System among Indian Christians
Indian Christians are stratified by sect, location, and the castes of their predecessors. For instance, the Syrian Nasrani Christians in South India retain the middle caste status in society. Starting from the 16th century, Portuguese missionaries converted some of the lower-castes to Christianity. <ref name="britannica">Christian Castes Encyclopedia Britannica</ref>.
Presently in India, more than 70% of Christians are Dalits, but the higher caste Christians (30% by estimates) control 90% of the churches administrative jobs [3]. Out of the 156 bishops, only 6 are from lower castes. <ref>Problems and Struggles Dalitchristians.com</ref> <ref name="britannica"><ref>Encyclopedia Britannica</ref>
Christian churches in India are largely controlled by upper caste Priests and nuns. Low-caste Dalit Christians are discriminated against by the upper-caste Christians. The extent and practice of untouchability within the Indian Christian community have been researched. Chapels for Dalit Christians are often segregated from Christians of a higher caste. Other churches admit Dalit Christians, but keep separate pews for them. Dalit Christians are buried in separate cemeteries. In addition, Dalit boys are not allowed to be altar boys or lectors.In addition, there are various instances of economic discrimination where Dalit Christians are not allowed to own arable land by upper caste Christian clergy. In many Christian communities in India, bonded labor is still practiced. As a consequence of the discrimination, Dalit Christians tend to be very poor and undernourished. Dalit Christians are denied education by the Upper Caste Priests and nuns. Very few Dalit Christians are involved in administrative services, except for the few who reconverted back to Hinduism <ref>discrimination against Dalits by Christians indianhope.free.fr</ref>. There exists evidence to show that Christian individuals have mobility within their respective castes.<ref>Kerala Christians and the Caste System C. J. Fuller Man, New Series, Vol. 11, No. 1. (Mar., 1976), pp. 53-70.</ref>
Many Dalit Catholics have spoken out against discrimination against them by the Catholic Church. A famous Dalit activist with a nom-de-plume of Bama Faustina has written books that are critical of the discrimination by the nuns and priests in Churches in South India<ref>A palmyra leaf that sears us, The Hindu</ref>.
[edit] Caste System among Indian Muslims
In the more remote parts of South Asia, some Muslims have been categorized into what have been called castes, despite Islam's egalitarian tenets.<ref name="Britannica">"Islamic caste." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2006. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 18 Oct. 2006</ref><ref name="EoI">Burton-Page, J. "Hindū." Encyclopaedia of Islam. Edited by: P. Bearman, Th. Bianquis, C.E. Bosworth, E. van Donzeland W.P. Heinrichs. Brill, 2006. Brill Online.</ref> Ashrafs have a superior status derived from their foreign ancestry.<ref name="one">Aggarwal, Patrap (1978). Caste and Social Stratification Among Muslims in India. Manohar.</ref><ref name="two">Social Stratification Among Muslims in Indiaby Zarina Bhatty</ref> The non-Ashrafs are assumed to be converts from Hinduism, and are therefore drawn from the indigenous population. They, in turn, are divided into a number of occupational castes.<ref name="two"/>. According to some sources including Encyclopedia of Britannica, and Encyclopedia of Islam the castes among Muslims developed as the result of close contact with Hindu culture, as well as Hindu converts to Islam who chose to retain their caste customs.<ref name="Britannica"/><ref name="EoI"/><ref>Muslim Caste in Uttar Pradesh (A Study of Culture Contact), Ghaus Ansari, Lucknow, 1960, Page 66</ref><ref name="Sikand">Singh Sikand, Yoginder. Caste in Indian Muslim Society. Hamdard University. Retrieved on 2006-10-18.</ref> . According to other scholars like Sajida Sultana Alvi and Imtiaz Ahmad, certain narratives regarding the Stratification of Muslim society were developed based on the idea of nasab, or claims of descent from the prophet Mohamed, which would give the Arab-descended endogamous groups superior status and a social system that was not exclusively influenced by Hindu Castes<ref name="Alvi">Sajida Sultana Alvi, Advice on the art of governance,an Indo-Islamic Mirror for Princes P122, State University of New York Press, ISBN:0-88706-918-5</ref><ref name="Imtiaz">Ahmad, Imtiaz, "The Ashraf-Ajlaf dichotomy in Muslim social structure in India", Indian economic and social history review 33 (1966) pgs 268-78</ref>(dubious; discuss) .The latter is evident from the fact that Muslim clerics were not influenced by Hindu caste narratives in the middle ages<ref name="Alvi"/>.In addition, scholars such as Yoginder Sikand, have asserted that while the influence of Hindu social mores on the Muslims might partially explain the continued salience of caste among them it does not fully explain how the Muslims of the region came to be stratified on the basis of caste in the first place. He has said that the claim that Muslim castes were "entirely influenced by Hinduism" is "based on the untenable assumption of a once pure, radically egalitarian Muslim community in India later coming under the baneful impact of Hinduism"<ref name="Sikand"/>.
While some Muslim scholars tried to reconcile and resolve the "disjunction between Qur'anic egalitarianism and Indian Muslim social practice" through theorizing it in different ways and interpreting the Quran and Sharia to justify casteism, others found the caste-like features in Indian Muslim society as a "flagrant violation of the Qur'anic worldview." <ref> Yoginder Singh Sikand, Caste in Indian Muslim Society </ref>
[edit] Stratification
Ashraf are further divided into groups of Sayyids, Sheikhs, Mughals and Pathans, in that order of rank. It is however believed that some of them, like the other group are also converts from Hinduism. The Sayyids are said to be descendants of the Prophet and regarded in high esteem. The Sheikhs are of Arab descent and are next in line in prestige. The Mughals are descendents of the Islamic Mughal emperors of India, and occupy third place. Pathans including Sepahis hail from the northwestern regions including Afghanistan and form the last group of Ashraf. Sections of the ulema (scholars of Islamic jurisprudence) provide religious legitimacy to caste with the help of the concept of kafa'a. A classical example of scholarly declaration of the Muslim caste system is the Fatawa-i Jahandari, written by the fourteenth century Turkish scholar, Ziauddin Barani, a member of the court of Muhammad bin Tughlaq, of the Tughlaq dynasty of the Delhi Sultanate. Barani was known for his intensely casteist views, and regarded the Ashraf Muslims as racially superior to the Ajlaf Muslims.He divided the Muslims into grades and sub-grades. In his scheme, all high positions and priviledges were to be a monopoly of the high born Turks, not the Indian Muslims. Even in his interpretation of the Koranic verse "Indeed, the pious amongst you are most honored by Allah", he considered piety to be associated with noble birth<ref name="Alvi"/>.Barrani was specific in his recommendation that the "sons of Mohamed" [i.e. Ashrafs] "be given a higher social status than the low-born [i.e. Ajlaf]<ref name="Das">Das, Arbind, Arthashastra of Kautilya and Fatwa-i-Jahandari of Ziauddin Barrani:an analysis, Pratibha Publications, Delhi 1996, ISBN:81-85268-45-2 pgs 138-139</ref>.His most significant contribution in the fatwa was his analysis of the castes with respect to Islam<ref name="Das2">Ibid pg124</ref>.His assertion was that castes would be mandated through state laws or "Zawabi" and would carry precedence over Sharia law whenever they were in conflict<ref name="Das2"/>.In the Fatwa-i-Jahandari (advice XXI) ,he wrote about the "qualities of the high-born" as being "virtuous" and the "low-born" being the "custodian of vices". Every act which is "contaminated with meanness and based on ignominity, comes elegantly [from the Ajlaf]"<ref>Ibid p143</ref>.Barani had a clear disdain for the Ajlaf and strongly recommended that they be denied education, lest they usurp the Ashraf masters. He sought appropriate religious sanction to that effect.<ref name="Sikand"/>. Barrani also developed an elaborate system of promotion and demotion of Imperial officers ("Wazirs") that was primarily on the basis of their caste<ref>Das pgs 138-139</ref>.
In addition to the Ashraf/Ajlaf divide, there is also the Arzal caste among Muslims, who were regarded by anti-Caste activists like Babasaheb Ambedkar as the equivalent of untouchables.<ref name="Ambedkar">Ambedkar, Bhimrao. Pakistan or the Partition of India. Thackers Publishers.</ref> <ref name="Ambedkaronline"> Web resource for Pakistan or the Partition of India</ref> The term "Arzal" stands for "degraded" and the Arzal castes are further subdivided into Bhanar, Halalkhor, Hijra, Kasbi, Lalbegi, Maugta, Mehtar etc <ref name="Ambedkar"/><ref name="Ambedkaronline"/>. The Arzal group was recorded in the 1901 census in India and are also called Dalit Muslims “with whom no other Muhammadan would associate, and who are forbidden to enter the mosque or to use the public burial ground”.They are relegated to "menial" professions such as scavenging and carrying night soil<ref>Dereserve these myths by Tanweer Fazal,Indian express</ref>. The practice of untouchability, however, is now virtually nonexistent in the Muslim community.<ref name="Sikand"/>
Indian Muslims also stratify their society according to 'Quoms' in the Bengal region of India<ref>Leach, Edmund Ronald (November 24, 1971). Aspects of Caste in South India, Ceylon and North-West Pakistan (Pg 113). Cambridge University Press.</ref>. These Muslims practise a ritual-based system of social stratification. The Quoms who deal with human emissions are ranked the lowest. Studies of Bengal (India) Muslims indicate that the concepts of purity and impurity exist among them and are applicable in inter-group relationships, as the notions of hygiene and cleanliness in a person are related to the person's social position and not to his/her economic status <ref name="two"/>. Muslim Rajput is another caste distinction among Indian Muslims.
Genetic data has also shown proof of this stratification. Pathans and Sheikhs are one group, Syed and Bania another, and the lower castes are composed of Saifis and Ansaris. <ref>Gene Diversity in Some Muslim Populations of North India Human Biology - Volume 77, Number 3, June 2005, pp. 343-353 - Wayne State University Press</ref>
[edit] Interaction and Mobility
Interactions between the oonchi zat (upper caste) and neechi zat (lower caste) are regulated by established patron-client relationships of the jajmani system, the upper castes being referred to as the 'Jajmans', and the lower caste as 'Kamin'. Upon contact with an low-caste Muslim, a Muslim of a higher zat can "purify" by taking a short bath, since there are no elaborate rituals for purification.<ref name="two"/> Higher caste Muslims and lower caste Muslims are sometimes even segregated by graveyards. <ref>Backward Muslims protest denial of burial</ref>
Some data indicates that the castes among Muslims have never been as rigid as that among Hindus.<ref name="Muslim Communities">Muslim Communities of South Asia: Culture and Society Edited by T.N. Madan. New Delhi: Vikas Publishing House, 1976 pp. 114</ref> The rate of endogamous marriage, for example, is less than two thirds.<ref name="Muslim Communities" /> An old saying also goes "Last year I was a Julaha (weaver); this year a Shaikh; and next year if the harvest be good, I shall be a Sayyid."<ref>Muslim Civilization in India S. M. Ikram, New York: Columbia University Press, 1964</ref>. However, other scholars, such as Ambedkar, disagreed with this thesis (see criticism below).
[edit] Criticism
While some scholars have asserted that the Muslim Castes are not as acute in their discrimination as that among Hindus<ref name="Sikand"/><ref name="Muslim Communities" />, Ambedkar argued otherwise, writing that the social evils in Muslim society were "worse than those seen in hindu society".<ref name="Ambedkar"/><ref name="Ambedkaronline"/>
Babasaheb Ambedkar was an illustrious figure in Indian politics and the chief architect of the Indian Constitution. He was extremely critical of the Muslim Caste System and their practices, quoting that "Within these groups there are castes with social precedence of exactly the same nature as one finds among the Hindus". He was critical of how the Ashrafs regarded the Ajlaf and Arzal as "worthless" and the fact that Muslims tried to sugarcoat the sectarian divisions by using euphemisms like "brotherhood" to describe them. He was also critical of the precept of literalism of scripture among Indian Muslims that led them to keep the Muslim Caste system rigid and discriminatory. He condemned the Indian Muslim Community of being unable to reform like Muslims in other countries like Turkey did during the early decades of the twentieth century<ref name="Ambedkar"/><ref name="Ambedkaronline"/>.
[edit] See also
[edit] Notable people
- Dr. B. R. Ambedkar, the Buddhist Revivalist and most prominent leader of the 20th century born in Hindu Untouchable/Dalit Community.
- Savitri Devi saw Brahmins as the bearers of Aryan culture to India, and admired the separation they kept between themselves and the Dravidians.
- Mahatma Gandhi coined Harijan, a euphemistic word for untouchable , literally meaning Sons of God.
- Mahatma Jyotirao Phule, essential precursor of Dalit political activism; devised a theory that established lowcaste people as the original inhabitants of India having been conquered in the ancient past by Brahman invaders (an example of the creative inversion of classical Aryan invasion theory)
- Thanthai Periyar, famous Tamil rationalist fought against the caste practice of Brahmins and was a prominent Anti-Hindu
- K. R. Narayanan, India's first and only Dalit President (1997 - 2002)
- Bangaru Laxman, BJP president 2001-2002. A former Dalit himself, he helped prove the BJP was not all about Brahmins.
- Uma Bharati, former CM of Madhya Pradesh and fireband Hindutva politician who is also a sannyasin and an OBC.
- Kancha Ilaiah, Professor at Osmania University known for his polemical attacks on Hindus.
[edit] Notes
<references/>
[edit] Literature
- Ambedkar, B.R. (1946). The Untouchables: Who Were They and Why They Became Untouchables? as reprinted in Volume 7 of Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar Writings and Speeches, published by Government of Maharashtra 1990; Complete Writings
- Ambedkar, B.R. (1946) Who were the Shudras [4]
- L.A. Babb (2004). Alchemis of Violence, Sage Publications, New Delhi.
- Jervoise Athelstane Baines (1893). General report on the Census of India, 1891, London, Her Majesty's Stationery Office
- Elst, Koenraad Update on the Aryan Invasion Debate. 1999. ISBN 81-86471-77-4 [5]
- G.S. Ghurye (1961). Caste, Class and Occupation. Popular Book Depot, Bombay.
- G.S. Ghurye (1969). Caste and Race in India, Popular Prakashan, Mumbai 1969 (1932)
- E.A.H. Blunt (1931). The Caste System of Northern India, republished 1964, S. Chand, Delhi.
- Crooke, William (1896). Tribes and Castes of the North-Western Provinces and Oudh, 4 vols.
- Russell, R.V. and R.B. Hira Lal (1916). The Tribes and Castes of the Central Provinces of India, 4 vols., London.
- Harikrishna Shastri (1871). Brahmanotpatti-martanda (Sanskrit/Hindi).
- Jwalaprasd Mishra (1914). Jati Bhaskar, (Hindi).
- Duiker/Spielvogel. The Essential World History Vol I: to 1800. 2nd Edition 2005
- Susan Bayly (2001), Caste, Society and Politics in India from the Eighteenth Century to the Modern Age, Paperback Edition, Cambridge University Press
- Louis Dumont. Homo Hierarchicus: The Caste System and Its Implications. Complete English edition, revised. 540 p. 1970, 1980 Series: (Nature of Human Society)
- Christophe Jaffrelot (2003). India's Silent Revolution: The Rise of the Lower Castes, C. Hurst & Co
- Kane, Pandurang Vaman: History of Dharmasastra: (ancient and mediaeval, religious and civil law) -- Poona : Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, 1962-1975
- Murray Milner, Jr. (1994). Status and Sacredness: A General Theory of Status Relations and an Analysis of Indian Culture, New York: Oxford University Press
- Ranganayakamma (2001). For the solution of the "Caste" question, Buddha is not enough, Ambedkar is not enough either, Marx is a must, Hyderabad : Sweet Home Publications
- Alain Danielou (1976). Les Quatre Sens de la Vie, Paris
- "Combatting Caste" New Internationalist, July 2005,
[edit] External links
- Jati system in India
- India Together on Caste
- Genetic Evidence on Caste Origins
- Murni's in Bali: Names, Titles and Castes
- The Caste System in India
- Annihilation of Caste with a Reply to Mahatma Gandhi Part I & Part II by Dr.B.R.Ambedkar
- Writings by Dr Ambedkar about Caste Online texts
- Caste and the Census
- Varna Ashram and Hindu Scriptures (pdf)
- Articles on Caste by Koenraad Elst: Caste in India, Buddhism and Caste, Indian tribals and Caste, Physical anthropology and Caste, Etymology of Varna
- Is Caste System Intrinsic to Hinduism?
- Hindu Caste System & Hinduism: Vedic vocations (Hindu castes) were not related to heredity (birth)
- ISKCON view of caste and behavior
- These documented Results of 4-Varn system can make you Proud of your Hindu heritage
- news on caste, communalism, and class struggle from the Anti-Caste Information Page
- The Indian Caste System and The British -Ethnographic Mapping and the Construction of the British Census in India
- Caste and Bhagawat Gita
- Early Evidence for Caste in South India by George L. Hart, Berkeley
- [6]
- BBC summary of the caste system
- BBC article "Low-caste Hindus adopt new faith"
