Jogaila

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This article refers to the 14th century monarch who founded the Jagiellon dynasty. For the 12th century monarch, see Władysław II the Exile, and for other monarchs with similar names see Ladislaus Jagiello (disambiguation) or Ladislaus (disambiguation).

Władysław II Jagiełło
Władysław II Jagiełło, a 19th century portrait by Jan Matejko
Born	ca. 1351
Died	June 1, 1434
in	Gródek Jagielloński (modern Horodok, Ukraine)
Buried	Wawel Cathedral
Coronation	March 4, 1386 in Wawel Cathedral
Family or dynasty	Jagiellon dynasty
Coat of Arms	Vytis.
Parents	Algirdas of Lithuania Uliana Alexandrovna of Tver
Marriage and children	with Jadwiga of Poland:  † Elżbieta Bonifacja
	with Anna of Celje:  Jadwiga of Lithuania
	with Elżbieta Granowska:  none
	with Sophia of Halshany:  Władysław III of Poland, † Casimir, Casimir IV of Poland

Jogaila or Władysław II Jagiełło<ref name="name">The ruler is known under a number of names: Lithuanian: Jogaila Algirdaitis, Polish: Władysław II Jagiełło, Belarusian: Jahajła (Ягайла). For the sake of simplicity this article uses his Lithuanian name of Jogaila for the early period of his life and the Christian name of Władysław for the period following his ascent to the Polish throne.</ref> (ca.1351 — 1434) was Grand Duke of Lithuania and King of Poland. Co-regent of Lithuania between 1377 and 1385, in 1386 he converted to Christianity and married the 11-year-old Queen Jadwiga of Poland. His reign in Poland lasted an additional 49 years and united both states, giving the birth to a long series of Polish-Lithuanian unions. He gave his name to the Jagiellon dynasty that ruled both states until 1596 and became one of the largest and most influential dynasties of Europe.<ref name="Bojtar">(English) Endre Bojtar (2000). Foreword to the Past: A Cultural History of the Baltic People. Budapest: Central European University Press, 180-186. ISBN 9639116424.</ref>

He was the last pagan ruler of mediaeval Lithuania, the last to hold solely, without the title "king", the title of Didysis Kunigaikštis<ref name="Kunigaikstis">Translated as High King in modern Lithuanian studies; other works translate the title either as Grand Duke or Grand Prince; in 14th century, when "countries" were small, perceived as king over smaller rulers; kunigaikstis is cognate of "king"; didysis magnifies it,</ref> and the first to adopt Christianity on permanent basis. With the support of the Teutonic Order he managed to win the struggle for power against his cousin, Vytautas. As king of Poland, he pursued a policy of close ties with Lithuania against the Teutonic Order. His brilliant victory in the battle of Grunwald of 1410 and the subsequent First Peace of Toruń<ref name="Columbia">(English) "Ladislaus II, king of Poland". Columbia Encyclopedia. (2005). Columbia University Press.</ref> secured both Polish and Lithuanian borders with one of the greatest powers of the region and laid the foundations for the later role of the Polish-Lithuanian state as a major power.

The Jagiellon era is often considered the beginning of Poland's "Golden Age", and as the starting point on the path towards the creation of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. His reign set those countries on the road to becoming a major European power.<ref name="Britannica">(English) "Wladyslaw II Jagiello". Encyclopædia Britannica. (2006).</ref> He also extended their frontiers to the north, east and west.

[edit] Biography

[edit] Early life

Little is known of the early days of Jogaila's life. A descendant of the Gediminid dynasty of dukes and Grand Dukes of Lithuania, he was most probably born in Vilnius. His parents were Algirdas, the Grand Duke of Lithuania, and his second wife, Uliana, the daughter of Alexander I, the Grand Prince of Tver. Jogaila's father was a de facto co-regent of Lithuania and ruled the country together with his brother, Kęstutis. However, with the death of Algirdas and succession of Jogaila in 1377, the fragile alliance and cooperation between the relatives came to an end.<ref name="Jones">(English) various authors, S.C.Rowell (2000). Michael Jones: The New Cambridge Medieval History. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 709-712. ISBN 0521362903.</ref><ref name="Bojtar"/>

Initially Jogaila ruled only the south-eastern part of Lithuania, bordering the lands of former Kievan Rus. These lands, though relatively secure, were stricken with internal struggles for power. After his takeover of the north-western part of the country he faced the problem of the Teutonic Order. The monastic state, founded after 1226 to fight the aggressive Baltic tribes of Prussians, Yotvingians and Lithuanians, had become a regional power in less then a century, raiding Lithuania, Masovia and other neighbouring lands on a yearly basis. Another threat to Jogaila's rule was the growing power of the Principality of Moscow which defeated the Golden Horde at the Battle of Kulikovo in 1380.

Seeking allies against his uncle, in 1380 Jogaila made a secret treaty with the Teutonic Knights, in which he was promised help in exchange for the Christianisation of Lithuania and the entire land of Samogitia.<ref name="Bojtar"/> However, the following year Kęstutis discovered the plan and seized Vilnius and Trakai, overthrowing Jogaila in a successful coup d'etat and reserving the title of the Grand Duke for himself.<ref name="Jones"/> Kęstutis returned only Kreva and Vitebsk to Jogaila. Vytautas himself escorted Jogaila and his mother to Kreva. Later Jogaila raised an army composed of his fathers' vassals, with which he returned to the scene in 1382. Both forces met near Kaunas, near the River Neris. Skirgaila promised immunity and invited Kęstutis and Vytautas to Jogaila's encampment in Vilnius for negotiations. But he deceived and imprisoned them. Jogaila's uncle died in captivity a week later in the castle of Kreva.<ref name="Kęstutis">Whether he died of natural causes or was murdered is still a subject of debate amongst historians. Some historians claim that it was Jogaila who had Kęstutis killed.</ref> Although Vytautas was able to escape, the struggle for power in Lithuania did not end as Vytautas continued the fight against Jogaila's rule.

After Vytautas' escape, both cousins sought help from the powerful, centralised state of the Teutonic Order.<ref name="Bojtar"/> Jogaila again promised to convert his state to Christianity and grant the Order parts of Samogitia up to the Dubysa river. At the same time Vytautas fled to Marienburg,<ref name="Jones"/> where he was baptised by the Teutonic Knights under the name of Wigand. The Teutonic Order had their own plans, and in the summer of 1383 they took advantage of the internal struggles in Lithuania. Promising help to both cousins, they once again invaded, taking most of Samogitia for themselves. This made Vytautas drift towards paganism once again, while Jogaila was faced with an extremely difficult situation. In 1384 Vytautas tried to win the support of the Teutonic Order also promising them parts of Samogitia up to the Nevėžis, and even fought with the Order against his cousin. However, his offer was rejected and in July of that year the cousins were reconciled. Vytautas switched sides yet again to support his cousin, pillaging several Prussian towns and taking considerable booty.<ref name="Kooper">(English) various authors, Giedre Mickunaite (1999). “From Pamphlet to Origin Theory”, Erik Simon Kooper: The Medieval Chronicle: Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference on the Medieval Chronicle. Utrecht: Rodopi, 157. ISBN 9042008342.</ref>

[edit] Christianisation and marriage

Although the internal problems of the Lithuanian state had mostly come to an end, this was not the case with the external threat from the Teutonic Order. The German monastic state had a long tradition of raiding Lithuanian lands, either in full-scale wars, or in smaller plunder raids organized almost on a yearly basis. Most of these incursions into Jogaila's domain were officially justified as crusades against pagan Lithuanians, who resisted the Christianization. Therefore the only way to put those attacks to an end, or at least remove the claims of validity of such attacks was to Christianise Lithuania. The state was far from being centralised and in fact most of its inhabitants were already Christians. The pagan Lithuanians, forming the core of the country's elite and numbering roughly 300,000 by the end of the 14th century,<ref name="Łukowski">(English) Jerzy Lukowski, Hubert Zawadzki (2001). A Concise History of Poland. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 33-45. ISBN 0521559170.</ref> were but a minority in their own state.<ref name="Scales">(English) various authors (2005). Len Scales, Oliver Zimmer: Power and the Nation in European History. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 215-225. ISBN 0521845807.</ref> They were outnumbered at least sevenfold by Orthodox inhabitants of the lands that were once part of the Kiev Ruthenia,<ref name="Łukowski"/><ref name="Kłoczowski">(English) Jerzy Kłoczowski (2000). A History of Polish Christianity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 54-57. ISBN 0521364299.</ref> and were already Christians of the Eastern rite.<ref name="Kosman-drogi">(Polish) Marceli Kosman (1976). Drogi zaniku pogaństwa u Bałtów. Wrocław: Zakład Narodowy im. Ossolińskich, 22.</ref> Since for most of his subjects Jogaila was a hospodar rather than didysis kunigaikštis,<ref name="Łukowski"/> the adoption of Orthodox Christianity seemed more natural. On the behest of his mother, Jogaila considered marrying the daughter of the Prince of Moscow.<ref name="Jones"/><ref name="Bojtar"/> However, such an option did not guarantee peace on the Teutonic frontier, as the latter state was run by a Roman Catholic military order who would have treated an Orthodox monarch no better than a heathen. Probably because of that Jogaila finally chose a different proposition offered by Roman Catholic Poland.

Under these circumstances, on August 14, 1385, a political act of union with Poland had been signed in the castle of Kreva. The document, known as the Union of Krewo, undertook to return the lands taken from Poland by its neighbours (notably Gdańsk and Eastern Pommerania taken by the Teutonic Order), and to adopt Christianity. In exchange, Jogaila was to marry Queen Jadwiga of Poland, who was 11-years-old <ref name="queen"> Technically Jadwiga was the king of Poland, as there was no position of a queen regnant within the Polish political system</ref> and not yet crowned as such. The marriage would precipitate her coronation, thus obtaining for her husband a much stronger diplomatic position in the struggle against the Teutonic Order. In addition, he was to be adopted by Jadwiga's mother, Elisabeth of Hungary.<ref name="Jones"/> In religious terms, the act of union produced voluntary Christianisation of both the new king and a large part of his court and knights. Jogaila was baptised in the Wawel Cathedral in Kraków on February 15, 1386. His baptismal name was Władysław,<ref name="Władysław"> a Slavic name that could roughly be translated as the one who rules the fame or the one who praises power. It is often Latinised into either Wladislaus or Ladislaus</ref> and was seen as a political declaration, as it reminded the Teutonic Order of both Władysław I of Poland who unified the Kingdom a century before<ref name="Łukowski"/><ref name="Jones"/> and Saint Ladislaus I of Hungary, who actively opposed the Holy Roman Empire in alliance with the Pope. The declaration was received properly in Marienburg, the capital of the Teutonic state, as the Grand Master of the order Ernst von Zöllner declined to become Władysław's godfather.<ref name="godfather"> Eventually Prince Władysław of Opole became Jogaila's godfather.</ref><ref name="Łukowski-baptism">Łukowski, op.cit., p.33</ref> The event was followed by a series of mass baptisms of king's supporters in Lithuanian and Polish rivers.<ref name="Kłoczowski"/> The king himself translated the Lord's Prayer and the Credo to Lithuanian.<ref name="Kłoczowski"/> Although it was mostly the ethnic Lithuanian nobility to convert to Catholicism,<ref name="Kłoczowski"/> while both paganism and Orthodox rite remained strong among the peasants,<ref name="Scales"/> the event had a great impact on the history of both Lithuania and Poland.

Two weeks afterwards, on March 4 of the same year, Władysław married Jadwiga and was crowned as the king of Poland. The event, widely discussed both in Poland and abroad, was considered a controversial move as the new monarch was still considered a pagan by many of his contemporaries. Prior to his arrival to Kraków, Jadwiga even dispatched one of her knights, Zawisza the Red, to confirm whether Jogaila was indeed a human, as he was believed to be a bear-like creature, uncivilised and cruel.<ref name="Kosman">(Polish) Marceli Kosman (1987). Jagiełło królem Polski: z dziejów unii Polski i Litwy (Jagiełło the king of Poland: the history of Polish-Lithuanian union). Warsaw: WSiP, 79. ISBN 8302032921.</ref> It was not until much later that the general public discovered the new ruler to be a civilised person, holding Christian culture in high regard and a skilled politician and military commander. In addition to those merits, he was reported to be an unusually clean person, as he had a habit of drinking only pure water, and shaving and washing himself every day, a thing uncommon in mediaeval Europe.<ref name="Kosman"/>

[edit] Ruler of Lithuania and Poland

Upon her marriage with 36 year old Władysław, twelve year old Jadwiga did not lose her status as a king of Poland and in fact both remained co-regents. Although as a monarch she most probably had little actual power, from her early days she was active in Poland's political, diplomatic and cultural life. She was seen as a warrant of promises made by Władysław to the nobles of Lesser Poland, the most important of which was reclaiming of the Polish lands lost to foreign powers. Already in 1387 she led two successful military expeditions to recapture the land of Red Ruthenia, lost in a dynastic dispute to the Kingdom of Hungary. As she was a heir to Louis I of Hungary herself, the campaign was almost completely peaceful and by September of that year Petru I of Moldavia paid homage to the Polish monarchs.<ref name="Jasienica">(Polish) Paweł Jasienica (1988). “Władysław Jagiełło”, Polska Jagiellonów. Warsaw: Państwowy Instytut Wydawniczy, 80-146. ISBN 830601796X.</ref> In 1390 she also began diplomatic negotiations with the Teutonic Order. It is probable that most of responsibilities of the monarch were now in Władysław's hands,<ref name="Jasienica"/> while she focused on charity and cultural activity. She sponsored writers and artists, and donated much of her personal wealth, including her royal insignia, to charity. Among the most notable cultural achievements of Jadwiga was the restoration of the Academy of Kraków, since 1817 called Jagiellonian University in honour of the couple.<ref name="Waltos">(English) Stanisław Waltos (2004). The Past and the Present. Jagiellonian University's web page. Jagiellonian University. Retrieved on 2006-08-04.</ref> In addition to that, Jadwiga financed a scholarship for 20 Lithuanians to study at Charles' University in Prague, which was to further strengthen the Christianity.

Along with Christianity and closer ties with Poland, Lithuania also adopted western legal traditions. Soon after his coronation, Władysław granted his native Vilnius with a city charter modelled after the city rights of Kraków, which in turn were modelled after the Magdeburg Law.<ref name="Jasienica-legal">Paweł Jasienica, op.cit., pp.74-80</ref> The following year Vytautas issued a privilege to a Jewish commune of Trakai, which was almost an exact copy of earlier privileges issued to Jews of Poland by Boleslaus the Pious and Casimir the Great.<ref name="Jasienica-legal"> This tradition of steady unification of legal systems and traditions was continued throughout Władysław's rule.<ref name="Jasienica"/> However, while the effects of such policies were long-lasting, there were much more serious issues awaiting the newly-wed Jadwiga and Władysław.

Contrary to the expectations, the Teutonic Order did not put an end to the attacks against Lithuania. The fiction of a Lithuanian Crusade, for which the Order pushed every now and then, could no longer be sustained after the union of Poland and Lithuania.<ref name="Turnbull">(English) Stephen Turnbull (2004). Crusader Castles of the Teutonic Knights (2): Baltic Stone Castles 1184-1560. Osprey Publishing, 22. ISBN 1841767123.</ref> The Grand Master knew that without pagan Lithuania, the entire Monastic State of the Teutonic Knights had lost its raison d'etre. However, in fact after 1387 the crusades intensified, as the Order claimed the conversion was a forgery and perhaps even a heresy.<ref name="Jones"/><ref name="Sedlar">(English) Jean W. Sedlar (1994). East Central Europe in the Middle Ages, 1000-1500. Seattle: University of Washington Press, 388. ISBN 0295972904.</ref> The first of such attacks took place during Władysław's coronation ceremonies.<ref name="Jasienica"/> The monarchs continued the policy of strengthening Catholicism in Lithuania. A new bishopric was created in Vilnius (Archdiocese of Vilnius), with the first bishop of Vilnius being Andrzej Wasilko, former confessor of Elisabeth of Hungary.<ref name="Jones"/> The bishopric was subordinate to the archbishopric office in Gniezno rather than Königsberg and also covered the lands of Samogitia, then in most part under control of the Teutonic Order. This did not help to resolve the disputes with that state, but at the same time considerably facilitated the Polish-Lithuanian rapprochement and allowed the Polish church to provide help to its' new Lithuanian counterpart.<ref name="Kłoczowski"/>

Also the situation in Lithuania became problematic. Following a short period of truce between Władysław and his cousin Vytautas, the latter started a civil war to oust his relative and secure the throne for himself.<ref name="Bojtar"/> As both Poland and the Teutonic Order were drawn to the conflict by both sides, exotic alliances and promises were given. The situation was particularly dangerous to Władysław and Jadwiga, as the Vytautas' lands of Samogitia and Polotsk bordered both the domain of the Order and the lands of their former allies, the Livonian Brothers of the Sword.<ref name="Jasienica"/> On September 4, 1390 the joint forces of Vytautas and the Teutonic Grand Master Konrad von Wallenrode<ref name="Siege of Vilna">In fact the Teutonic forces were in large part composed of volunteers and mercenaries from western Europe, notably from France, German states and England; as cited in: Paweł Jasienica, op.cit., pp.83-84</ref> besieged Vilnius held by Jagiełło's regent Skirgaila and his forces, composed of combined Polish, Lithuanian and Ruthenian troops.<ref name="Bojtar"/> Vytautas was also plotting with Muscovy in search of potential allies.<ref name="Dvornik">(English) Francis Dvornik (1992). The Slavs in European History and Civilization. Rutgers University Press, 222-225. ISBN 0813507995.</ref> Although the the siege was lifted after a month, much of the city was reduced to ruins.<ref name="Siege of Vilna"/> The bloody conflict eventually came to a temporary end with the Treaty of Ostrów of 1392.<ref name="Dvornik"/> negotiated by Henry of Masovia, bishop of Płock.<ref name="Jasienica"/>

Following the secret agreement, Jogaila became Władysław Jagiełło once and for all, leaving the Lithuanian affairs to his cousin in exchange for peace.<ref name="Bojtar"/> The latter was to reign Lithuania until his death as a Grand Duke, subordinate to the Polish monarch. This of course proved unsatisfactory to Vytautas' ambitions and he continued to insist on Lithuania's separation from its western neighbour. In 1398 the lengthy war against the Teutonic raids finally came to an end. On October 12 of that year a peace treaty was signed on a small islet on the Neman River, known by its German name of Sallinwerder. However, the price was high as Lithuania was to officially cede Samogitia and help the Teutonic Order in subduing Pskov, while the Order were to help Lithuania in obtaining Novgorod.<ref name="Jasienica"/> Taking advantage of the situation, soon afterwards Vytautas yet again claimed the power and was crowned a king by local nobles loyal to him, but the following year his forces and those of his ally Khan Tokhtamysh were crushed by the Timurids in the battle of the Vorskla River, and Vytautas was yet again forced to submit himself to Władysław.<ref name="Bojtar"/><ref name="Dvornik"/>

[edit] King of Poland

Meanwhile, Jadwiga had grown older and became pregnant. On June 22, 1399 she gave birth to a daughter, baptized Elizabeth Bonifacia. However, within a month both mother and daughter died from birth complications,<ref name="complications">The deaths are often attributed to the so-called Angevin sickness, a hypothetical genetic defect that made the mortality rate among children of Angevin blood very high. During the 19th century exhumation of remnants of Jadwiga it was also discovered that her pelvis was unusually narrow, which might have also contributed to her death</ref> leaving Jagiełło as sole ruler of Poland. However, his position was seriously undermined by Jadwiga's death and the extinction of Angevins, as Jagiełło had no heirs at the age of 50. Also, the old conflicts between the nobility of Lesser Poland, generally sympathetic to Jagiełło, and the gentry of Greater Poland, returned.

To gain wider support both in Poland and Lithuania, Władysław granted privileges to the nobility. The Union of Vilnius and Radom of 1401 was to settle the Lithuanian dispute once and for all. It confirmed the earlier treaty of Ostrów and confirmed Vytautas' status as a Grand Duke,<ref name="Vytautas-1401">Albeit not hereditary.</ref> while Władysław reserved the right to remain his overlord.<ref name="Jasienica-103">Paweł Jasienica, op.cit., pp.103-105</ref> After Vytautas' death the title of the grand duke was to pass to Władysław's heirs rather than those of Vytautas, while if Władysław were to die without an heir the boyars of Lithuania would participate in the election of a new monarch.<ref name="Stone">(English) Daniel Z Stone (2001). The Polish-Lithuanian State, 1386-1795. Seattle: University of Washington Press, 11. ISBN 0295980931.</ref> While the act was mostly vague as at the time neither Władysław nor his cousin had an heir, it also strengthened the ties between the Polish and Lithuanian nobility<ref name="Sedlar"/> and also formed some sort of a permanent defensive alliance between the two states.<ref name="Dvornik"/> This strengthened the position of Lithuania in a new war against the Teutonic Order, in which Poland did not take part officially.<ref name="Jasienica"/> While the document did not in any way limit the liberties of the Polish nobles, it granted power to the boyars of Lithuania, where the grand dukes were masters and owners of all power, unlike in Poland. In the short term Jagiełło gained support in the Grand Duchy at the expense of Vytautas.<ref name="Jasienica"/>

Under the influence of the nobility of Lesser Poland, in 1402 Władysław married Anna of Celje, a granddaughter of late king Casimir III of Poland of the Piast dynasty. The marriage had purely political character and was to underline Władysław's rights to the Polish throne in the face of combined opposition from Konrad von Jungingen, the new Grand Master of the Teutonic Order, and William, Duke of Austria, former fiancée of Jadwiga. It was also to strengthen the diplomatic position of the monarch in the constant struggle with the Teutonic Order, who in the meantime managed to recapture all of Samogitia.<ref name="Jasienica-103"/> In late 1401 the war was resumed and did not go well for the Lithuanians. Several uprisings and revolts in the eastern provinces of the Grand Duchy forced the state to wage a two-front war. Also, another of Władysław's brothers Švitrigaila, previously ousted from his domain in Polotsk, became a pretender to the Lithuanian throne and decided to back the Teutonic Knights by organizing uprisings behind the lines.<ref name="Housley">(English) Norman Housley (1992). The Later Crusades 1274-1580: From Lyons to Alcazar. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 354. ISBN 0198221363.</ref> On January 31, 1402 he defected to Marienburg, where he confirmed all earlier concessions promised to the Teutonic Order by both Jagiełło and Vytautas<ref name="Jasienica-103"/>. Although Poland offered Lithuania with secret military support and Polish units took part in the fights, by 1404 the victory of the Order was apparent. Jagiełło decided to intervene and on May 22 of that year a peace treaty had been signed in Raciąż. The treaty of Raciąż was a huge victory for the Teutonic Knights as Jagiełło was forced to agree to almost all demands. In line with the earlier pacts of Kalisz (1343) and Sallinwerder (1398),<ref name="Housley"/> Samogitia was officially ceded to the order and Jagiełło was to support the Order's claims to Pskov, while Konrad von Jungingen promised to support Vytautas' claims to the town of Novgorod.<ref name="Jasienica-103"/> Perhaps the only positive effect of the treaty was that the Teutonic Knights agreed to sell back the disputed Dobrzyń Land and the town of Złotoryja, pawned to the Order by Władysław Opolski.

[edit] Medieval cold war

The treaty, while necessary for both sides, was by no means seen as a permanent settlement. The Polish and Lithuanian side needed to secure its northern flank to be able to deal with Silesian matters as well as with Muscovy, while the Teutonic Order needed some time to fortify itself in the newly-acquired lands. In addition, the recent Teutonic acquisitions of Neumark, Santok and Drezdenko separated Poland from Western Pomerania and flanked Polish lands in Eastern Pommerania. The pact did not solve those issues and the geo-political situation remained highly dangerous to both Poland and Lithuania. Another conflict with the Teutons was inevitable.

Following the treaty of Raciąż, both Polish and Lithuanian northern flank was secured, at least temporarily. Already several months after the treaty had been signed, Władysław repaid the debts of Władysław of Opole and retook some of his domain, previously pawned to the Order. Although in 1392, following the death of Agnieszka, widow of Bolko of Świdnica, the Polish crown had lost all claims to the lands of Silesia, the possible conflict with Bohemia remained a serious threat. To settle the dispute, in 1404 Jagiełło visited Vratislav where he met with Wenceclas IV of Bohemia. The latter proposed to return Silesia to Poland in exchange for Władysław's support in the struggle for power in the Holy Roman Empire.<ref name="Śląsk">(Polish) Śląsk w polityce Piastów (Silesia within the policies of the Piasts). Polska Piastów (2005). Retrieved on 2006-08-09.</ref> However, the proposal was refused, probably due to opposition by both Polish and Silesian nobles.<ref name="Śląsk"/> The state, endangered with a war on two fronts, could not risk another war in the west.

In the meantime, Vytautas started yet another war, this time against Muscovy. With his flanks secured, and a powerful ally, Vytautas resumed his raids against all duchies for which Lithuania competed with Moscow. In 1405 the Polish forces seized the important city of Smolensk, which sparked the reaction of Vasili I of Muscovy the following year.<ref name="Jasienica-103"/> Initially a limited scale war, the conflict turned into a serious threat to all sides involved in the spring of 1408. The Teutons, who until then openly supported Vytautas, in line with the provisions of the peace treaty of Raciąż, continued to pact with Moscow and Švitrigaila. The latter was sent to Moscow, where he joined his forces with Vasili I, in an attempt to oust Vytautas. He was soon joined by a large number of Lithuanian boyars, who also defected to the Muscovite side.<ref name="Jasienica-103"/> This forced both sides to gather significant forces. In early autumn of that year Vytautas marched eastwards with a large army. Supported by 5000 Polish pikemen and knights under Zbigniew of Brzezie, he reached the Ugra River, where both armies met. However, during the negotiations it was decided that both Vasili and Jagiełło had too much to lose. Both Poland and Lithuania were constantly threatened by the Teutons, while the Prince of Moscow was threatened by Khan Edigu's Nogai Horde, who pillaged Nizhny Novgorod, Gorodets and Rostov, and was heading towards Moscow. Both sides agreed to a peace treaty and a new border on the Ugra.<ref name="Wołowska">(Polish) Tekla Wołowska (1860). Historya Polska (Polish History). Paris: L. Martinet, 433.</ref> In line with the earlier accords with the Teutons, Velikiy Novgorod was granted to Jagiełło's brother, Simeon Lingwen. However, at the same time the important city of Pskov was granted to Władysław's envoy Jerzy Nos, which was a clear violation of the treaty of Raciąż.<ref name="Jasienica-103"/> Despite attempts of mediation by Hermann II of Celje, the war seemed inevitable.<ref name="Prochaska">(Polish) Antoni Prochaska (1908). Król Władysław Jagiełło. Kraków: Akademia Umiejętności, 240.</ref>

[edit] Cold war turns hot

See also: Polish-Lithuanian-Teutonic War and Battle of Grunwald

After the end of the war with Muscovy, in December of 1408 Jagiełło met with Vytautas and Mikołaj Trąba at the castle in Nowogródek. During the meeting, it was decided to start war preparations and prepare an armed uprising against the Teutonic rule in Samogitia, which was to divert the German forces from Pomerelia. Jagiełło secured his cousin's support by promising to retake Samogitia in a future peace treaty.<ref name="Zakrzewski">(Polish) (Latin) (1935) Lites ac Res gestae inter Polonos ordinemque Cruciferorum typis mandavis adnotationibus instruxit Hedvigis Karwasińska (Conflicts and Matters between Poland and the Teutonic Order, described and commented by Jadwiga Karwasińska). Warsaw: Bibliotheca Cornicensis, 21.</ref> The uprising in Samogitia began May of 1409, initially without much opposition from the Teuton Knights. The Order did not manage to consolidate its power there nor had enough time to build large castles in Samogitia, which were the backbone of their power in other parts of their realm.

The Teutonic Order's diplomats arrived to Jagiełło's court in Oborniki in June and tried to convince the nobles more than the monarch himself, that the new conflict was provoked by Lithuania and that they had more to loose than to win in a forthcoming war.<ref name="Jasienica-106">Paweł Jasienica, op.cit., pp.106-107</ref> Support for such a war among the Polish nobles was relatively high, given the number of border disputes, incidents and provocations on both sides. However, the nobles of Greater Poland feared increased war taxation and the king would have to convince them by granting them certain concessions or privileges. Unwilling to limit his power, Jagiełło decided to create faits accomplis and the following month sent his envoys to Marienburg. The ambassador, Bishop of Gniezno Mikołaj Kurowski, assured the new Grand Master Ulrich von Jungingen, that Poland would intervene should the Teuton Knights start hostilities in Samogitia. This created a casus belli and the Order declared war against Poland on August 6.<ref name="Jasienica-106"/>

While officially bound by a peace treaty, the Order had also been preparing for a war for a long time. On August 14 Jagiełło received the declaration of war in Nowy Korczyn and already two days afterwards the Teutonic Order invaded Pomerania and northern Greater Poland. For Poland it was the first war in 77 years, and the castles guarding the northern border were in bad condition. This allowed the Order to capture the castles of Złotoryja, Dobrzyń and Bobrowniki, the capital of Dobrzyń Land. The German burghers of Bydgoszcz opened the gates for the Teutonic Order. However, in late September Jagiełło finally gathered his forces and arrived to Pomerania. His forces besieged Bydgoszcz and retook it in less then a week, after which a cease fire was signed on October 8.

Both sides used the winter to prepare for war. Jagiełło ordered construction of a pontoon bridge in Kozienice, which was then transported down the Vistula.<ref name="Bridge"> It was one of the first usages of pontoon bridges in European warfare since the Battle of Garigliano, and the first time such a measure was used by an European power since the antiquity.</ref> The King's foragers organized a gigantic hunting in the Białowieża forest. Meat for the army was then preserved in salt and transported down the Narew and Vistula to Płock in Masovia, which was turned into a large supply depot. Both sides also started diplomatic preparations. As in earlier wars against Poland and Lithuania, the Teutonic Order sent letters to the monarchs of Europe asking for reinforcements and vowing a crusade against the heathens. However, their propaganda was met with counter-propaganda by Jagiełło, who also dispatched letters to the monarchs, in which he underlined that the only reason for war was the imperialism of the Teutonic Knights and claimed that the true plan of the Teutonic Grand Masters was to conquer the entire world.<ref name="Jasienica-108">Jagiełło's letter is preserved in several copies, as cited in: Paweł Jasienica, op.cit., p.108</ref> The diplomatic campaign led by both sides led a large number of foreign knights report for duty on both sides. King Wenceslas IV of Bohemia signed a defensive treaty against the Teutonic Order and promised to join the war with his forces, which led his opponent Sigismund of Luxembourg side with the Order. The latter also declared a war against Poland on July 12,<ref name="Jasienica-110">Paweł Jasienica, op.cit., p.110</ref> but the Hungarian nobility refused to back their overlord and did not take part in hostilities.

The war was resumed in early summer of 1410, but this time Poland took the offensive. King Władysław led his army of roughly 22,000 men directly towards the Teutonic Order's heartland. After crossing the Vistula through the pontoon bridge at Czerwińsk, his forces assembled with the regiments of Vytautas, which included roughly 17,000 men. The combined forces, consisting mostly of Polish heavy cavalry, Lithuanian light cavalry, foot mercenaries and Tartars, formed a great army of roughly 40,000 men-at-arms, a gigantic force by mediaeval standards and one of the largest forces assembled in the Middle Ages. Jagiełło, who personally assumed command over the force, led his army northwards. On July 15 the forces of Poland and the Grand Duchy were stopped by a 25,000 men strong army of the Grand Master at the fields of Grunwald. In the result of the battle the army of the Teutonic Order was almost annihilated, and Ulrich von Jungingen was killed in the battle, along with the majority of notable commanders of the monastic state. With the remnants of the Teutonic forces in retreat, the road towards Marienburg lay open and the city itself was undefended.

[edit] Difficult peace

However, Jagiełło decided to postpone his pursuit by three days. When he resumed his march towards the Teutonic Order's capital on July 17, the pace of the march was slow, even by contemporary standards. Advancing towards Grunwald the Polish and Lithuanian forces travelled between 30 and 40 kilometres a day, while after the battle their speed was reduced to 10 kilometres a day. Jagiełło's forces arrived at Marienburg on July 25, which gave the new Grand Master, Heinrich von Plauen, enough time to organize the defence.<ref name="Stone-17">Daniel Z. Stone, op.cit., p.17</ref> The siege which followed was only half-hearted and was ended relatively soon, on September 19. The reasons for such a weak stance against a defeated enemy are disputed by numerous historians, but lack of sources prevents them from finding a definite answer. Paweł Jasienica in his monumental Polska Jagiellonów suggests, that Władysław might have remained loyal to Lithuania and wanted to preserve the fragile equilibrium between the two allied states, as Lithuania suffered heavy casualties in the battle of Grunwald and it would be Poland which would gain most from the destruction of the monastic state.<ref name="Jasienica-113">Paweł Jasienica, op.cit., pp.113-120</ref> Others point out that Jagiełło might have known that the fortress of Marienburg was impregnable and a lengthy and devoted siege would have only cost him the lives of his soldiers, with little chance of success.<ref name="Stone-17"/>

In the resulting Peace of Toruń neither Poland nor Lithuania took advantage of the utter defeat of the monastic state. Poland got back the Land of Dobrzyń and Samogitia was returned to Lithuania, while Masovia reclaimed a tiny land across the Wkra river. However, most of the lands of the Order, including the towns that surrendered themselves to the Polish monarch, were left in German hands. A considerable number of prisoners (both high-ranking knights and officials of the Teutonic Order, and foreign volunteers) were released for a relatively modest ransom by contemporary standards.<ref name="ransom">Jagiełło agreed to release all of the captives in exchange for an equivalent of roughly 20 tons of silver</ref>

Following the signing of the peace treaty, the internal support for Władysław's rule in Poland diminished. The belief that a complete victory over a long-time enemy of Poland had been wasted stroke a wedge between the monarch and even the nobles of Lesser Poland, traditionally allied to Władysław.<ref name="Jasienica-121">Paweł Jasienica, op.cit., pp.121-124</ref> The political crisis was not diminished by the fact that, following the end of the war, Władysław spent almost two years in Lithuania, without even visiting Kraków. He also granted the land of Podolia, over which Poland and Lithuania had been conflicted, to Vytautas, which also added to the monarch's problems. The king tried to diminish the influence of the opposition at all cost. In the Autumn of 1411 he promoted the leader of the opposing faction, the chancellor of the court and a Catholic bishop Mikołaj Trąba, to the dignity of Archbishop of Gniezno. Trąba left Kraków and his place was taken by Wojciech Jastrzębiec, a partisan of Vytautas.<ref name="Jasienica-121"/> This move however did not end the problem and Jagiełło had to seek more allies. In 1413 he proposed and passed the Union of Horodło, which confirmed the status of the Grand Duchy as tied to our Kingdom of Poland permanently and irreversibly, at the same time granting the Catholic nobles of Lithuania with some of the liberties enjoyed by the Polish szlachta. Among the most important provisions of the new act<ref name="Horodło">In fact the act of union consisted of three separate documents, all signed on October 2, 1413</ref> was a clause that prohibited the Polish nobles from electing a king without a consent of the Lithuanian nobles and forced the Lithuanians to elect a Grand Duke only if his person was accepted by the king of Poland. The provisions of the new act of union were important to Władysław as, at the age of approximately 62 he was still lacking a male heir. Although the Polish nobles agreed to accept Jadwiga of Lithuania, daughter of Anna of Celje (and a direct descendant of the Piast dynasty) as the heir of the Polish throne, the young princess was to be elected by the nobles rather than simply inherit the throne.

[edit] Peace with the Teutonic Order

In 1414 war against the Teutonic Knights was resumed, but on a much smaller scale. The Teutonic Order and Lithuania had still not recovered from the previous war and both sides avoided fighting a major battle. The Order adopted scorched earth tactics, burning fields and mills, which gave the war the name of the war of starvation.<ref name="Jasienica-121"/> The conflict ended in the autumn and was to be resumed in 1419, but on the insistence of the papal legate it was called off completely. It was continued as a political conflict during the Council of Constance. The Polish envoys, among them Mikołaj Trąba, Zawisza Czarny and Paweł Włodkowic, insisted on banning the forceful conversion of heathens, which had been the main rationale behind Teutonic wars with Poland and Lithuania. The latter's Tractatus de potestate papae et imperatoris respectu infidelium (Treatise on the Power of the Pope and the Emperor Over the Infidels) drew the thesis that pagan and Christian nations could coexist in peace and criticized the Teutonic Order for its wars of conquest and extermination of native non-Christian peoples in Prussia and Lithuania. Due to the treatise's influence, in 1421 the Pope sent Antionio Zeno to investigate the Teutonic Order and its activities, which was seen as a significant diplomatic victory by the Polish-Lithuanian envoys.

The diplomatic contest also involved the Hussite movement in Bohemia. Poland, generally supportive of the Hussites, was seen by them as a potential ally in their fight against Emperor Sigismund. In 1420, soon after crushing the rebellion in Wratislaw, the capital of Silesia, the Emperor ruled out that all of the lands disputed between Poland and the Order were to be granted to the latter state eternally, including Pomerelia, Dobrzyń Land, Pomerania and Samogitia. While this verdict had little effect and the Emperor had no sovereignty over the Kingdom of Poland, it was seen as a way to distract Poland from meddling in Bohemian affairs and was to untie Emperor's hands.<ref name="Jasienica-129">Paweł Jasienica, op.cit., pp.128-130</ref><ref name="Rogalski">(Polish) Leon Rogalski (1846). Dzieje Krzyżaków (History of the Teutonic Knights). Warsaw: Samuel Orgelbrand, 161-166.</ref> Although Jagiełło was offered the Bohemian throne, under pressure from the Emperor he could not accept it himself and instead delegated Vytautas as the heir to the Crown of St. Wenceslas, who in turn sent Sigismund Korybut to Prague. After three years of haggling with Sigismund of Luxemburg, the claim to the Czech throne was dropped.

Anna of Cilli died in 1416 leaving her only daughter, Jadwiga. The Emperor immediately proposed that Jagiełło, then in his 70s and still lacking a male heir, should marry Sofia of Bavaria, widow of late Wenceslaus, King of the Romans. Despite strong support from the nobility, who expected to receive Silesia as a dowry, the proposal was refused. Instead king Władysław married Elisabeth of Pilica in 1417, a controversial marriage that ended in 1420 with Elisabeth's death. Two years later, Władysław married Sophia of Halshany. Immediately after the wedding, the king set off for Prussia, where yet another war against the Teutonic Order was started. This time the Order was defeated before the reinforcements from the Holy Roman Empire could arrive and the conflict ended in less than 2 months. Paradoxically, the resulting Treaty of Lake Melno had little effect for Poland. It established a permanent border between Lithuania and Prussia,<ref name="Permanent">The border, with minor modifications, remained unchanged for roughly 500 years, until 1920.</ref> as the Teutons renounced all claims to Samogitia. At the same time Władysław agreed to renounce all Polish claims to Pomerania, Pomerelia and Chełmno Land, while Poland received only the town of Nieszawa.<ref name="Bury">(English) various authors, John Bagnell Bury, Henry Melvill Gwatkin, James Pounder Whitney, Joseph Robson Tanner, Charles William Previte-Orton, Zachary Nugent Brooke (1911). The Cambridge Medieval History. Macmillan, 573.</ref> Because of this, the peace treaty ending the victorious war is often seen as a Polish defeat.<ref name="Jasienica-130">Paweł Jasienica, op.cit., p.130</ref>

[edit] Last years

The treaty signed at Melno ended a period of wars between Lithuania and the Order, but changed little in the Polish conflict with the monastic state. The death of Jadwiga of Lithuania, in 1431, released Władysław to leave Poland to his sons, erasing the last possible Jagello heir with Piast blood. Władysław II Jagiełło did not yet have any heirs. His next marriages were with ladies from Polish and Lithuanian dominions, apparently having no ancestors among Polish monarchs. His sons and heirs were born of his fourth wife Sophia of Halshany, who was from Lithuania/Ruthenia, not Poland. Polish nobles gained concessions and privileges from Władysław when utilizing his need to get confirmation for his sons' succession.

Władysław II Jagiełło died in his eighties, in 1434, leaving Lithuania to his younger son Casimir and Poland to his elder, Władysław. Both boys were underage at his death.

Although the Jagiellonian dynasty was not a hereditary one in Poland (though in Lithuania it was) and in theory each king of this dynasty was elected, in reality every time when the father died, his son (or brother) was elected as new king.

After the last male member of the Jagiellonian dynasty died, the kings of Poland were elected by the nobility (szlachta) of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth.

[edit] Titles

[edit] As monarch of Lithuania before religious conversion

• Lithuanian title in Latin: Jagalo, magnus Rex vel dux Lithuanorum, Russieque dominus et heres
• Title in German: oberster/ grosser König der/zu Litauen

(breviary excerpts: from a Latin document in 1383: Nos Jagalo divina deliberacione magnus Rex vel dux litwanorum, Russieque dominus et here; from a German document in 1380: Wir Jagel obirster kung der Littouwen, from a German document in 1382 where together with his brother Skirgaila: Wir Jagal von gotis gnaden grosir konig czu lyttauwen und wir Skirgal Hertzog zcu Tracken, gebrudere - source [1])

(Compare with his grandfather Gediminas' titulary which at least in 1323 had been Gedeminne Dei gratia Letphanorum Ruthenorumque rex, princeps et dux Semigallie.)

[edit] From 1386, when ascended in Poland

• Royal title in Latin: Wladislaus Dei gracia rex Polonie necnon terrarum Cracovie, Sandomirie, Syradia, Lancicie, Cuiavie, Lithuanie princeps supremus, Pomoranie Russieque dominus et heres etc.
• English translation: Vladislaus by God's grace king of Poland, and lands of Kraków, Sandomierz, Sieradz, Łęczyca, Kuyavia, supreme-prince of Lithuania, lord and heir of Pomerania and Ruthenia, etc.
• Polish translation: Władysław, z Bożej łaski król Polski, ziemi krakowskiej, sandomierskiej, sieradzkiej, łęczyckiej, kujawskiej, Wielki Książe Litewski, pan i dziedzic Pomorza i Rusi, etc
• Lithuanian translation: Vladislovas, Dievo valia karalius Lenkijos ir žemių Krokuvos, Sandomiro, Sieradžo, Lenčycos, Kujavijos, Lietuvos didysis kunigaikštis, Pomeranijos ir Rusios valdovas ir paveldėtojas, etc.
• Belarusian translation: Уладзіслаў, з Божай ласкі кароль польскі, зямлі кракаўскай, сандамерскай, серадзкай, лучыцкай, куяўскай, князь літоўскі, пан і дзедзіч паморскі і рускі, etc.

[edit] Family relations

Main article: Family relations of Władysław II of Poland