Long March
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- This article is about the large-scale retreat. For the rocket, see Long March rocket.
The Long March (Traditional Chinese: 長征; pinyin: Chángzhēng) was a massive military retreat undertaken by the armies of the Communist Party of China (CCP), the forerunner of the People's Liberation Army, to evade the pursuit of the Kuomintang army. There was not one Long March, but several, as various Communist armies in the south escaped to the north and west. The most well known is the march from Jiangxi province which began in October 1934. The First Front Army of the Chinese Soviet Republic, led by an inexperienced military commission, was on the brink of complete annihilation by Chiang Kai-Shek's troops in their stronghold in Jiangxi province. The Communists, under the eventual command of Mao Zedong and Zhou Enlai, escaped in a circling retreat to the west and north, which reportedly traversed some 12,500 kilometers (8,000 miles) over 370 days. The route passed through some of the most difficult terrain of western China by traveling west, then north, to Shaanxi.
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[edit] Beginnings of the retreat
An initial period of cooperation between the Kuomintang (Nationalist Party) and the Chinese Communist Party to unify China against the feudal warlords and the Japanese Empire ended abruptly in April of 1927 when Chiang Kai-shek struck out against the Communists. The suppression of the Communist Party in Shanghai and other cities finally drove many party supporters to rural stongholds such as the Jiangxi Soviet organized by Mao Zedong.
By 1930, the Communist Army had an established base in Jiangxi, including industrial facilities, and the area was a bastion of communism.<ref>Ruth Rogaski, PhD, in Microsoft® Encarta® Online Encyclopedia 2006: Mao Zedong, III. Rise to Power (Retrieved November 25, 2006)</ref> Several attempts by Chiang to defeat the Communists were repelled by forces led by Mao. In September 1933, the National Revolutionary Army under Chiang Kai-shek eventually completely encircled Jiangxi, with the advice and tactical assistance of his German adviser, Hans von Seeckt.<ref>The German Military Mission to China: 1927-1938, by Arvo Vercamer (Retrieved 23 November 2006)</ref> A fortified perimeter was established by Chiang's forces, and Jiangxi was besieged in an attempt to destroy the Communist forces trapped within. Mao had been replaced by Chinese communists returning from Soviet Union<ref>Kampen, Thomas (2000). Mao Zedong, Zhou Enlai and the Evolution of the Chinese Communist Leadership (in English). Nordic Institute of Asian Studies, p 11. ISBN 878-7062-76-3.</ref> such as Wang Ming, and the Chinese Red Army was commanded by a three man military committee, including Wang Ming's German military advisor Otto Braun (called in Chinese, Li De), the Comintern military advisor Bo Gu, and Zhou Enlai. The committee abandoned Mao's successful tactics of mobile warfare against the Kuomintang forces. Direct engagements with the Nationalist army soon caused heavy casualties and loss of material and territory.
The Communist leadership decided on a strategic retreat to regroup with other Communist units, and to avoid annihilation. The first movements of the retreat were undertaken by forces led by Fang Zhimin, breaking through Kuomintang lines in June 1934, followed by Fe Ke Yu in August. Although Fang Zhimin's troops were soon neutralized, these movements surprised the Kuomintang, who were numerically superior to the Communists at the time and did not expect an attack on their fortified perimeter.
The early troop movements were actually a diversion to allow the retreat of more important leaders from Jiangxi. In October 1934, a force of 130,000 under Bo Gu and Li De attacked the line of Kuomintang positions. More than 86,000 troops, 11,000 administrative personnel and thousands of civilian porters actually completed the breakout; the remainder, largely wounded or ill soldiers, continued to fight a delaying action after the main force had left, and then dispersed into the countryside.
[edit] The rise of Mao Zedong
Image:Mao zedong1936.jpg After several months of marching westward, harassed by the Kuomintang, the Communist Army was depleted and demoralized. Attempting to cross the Xiang River in November 1934, the army lost more than 40,000 troops and all of the civilian porters, and there were strongly-defended Nationalist defensive lines ahead. Under these conditions, the Communists met in Zunyi in Guizhou province from January 15–17, 1935 to reshuffle the Party politburo. Although the failed leadership of Bo Gu and Li De was denounced, after three days Mao was not able to win the support of a sufficient number of Party leaders to gain outright power at the conference. Mao was passed over for the position of General Secretary by Zhang Wentian, but gained enough influence to be elected one of three members of Military Affairs Commission. The other two members, Zhou Enlai (appointed Director of the Commission) and Wang Jiaxiang, whose support Mao had enlisted earlier, were inexperienced in military affairs, leaving Mao in effective control of the Communist Red Army after the Zunyi conference.
When the army resumed its march north, the direct route to Sichuan was blocked by Chiang's forces. Traveling north to join Zhang Guotao's Fourth Front Army, Mao broke out of Guizhou and crossed the Yangtze on May 8, 1935. The Communist forces had now been on the move for seven months since leaving Jiangxi and had only 25,000 men left. The Communist leadership was determined to move into Shaanxi province, although the decision was not unanimous. Leaders like Zhang Guotao preferred to establish a refuge near the border with the Soviet Union. However, Mao overcame opposition by his using his influence over the subordinate commanders of the Communist forces.
Penetrating northward into areas populated by ethnic minorities hostile to Chinese encroachment, the Communist forces were not only harassed by the Kuomintang and their local warlord allies, but also by tribes hostile to all ethnic Chinese. The terrain was another formidable opponent: the Communists had to cross mountains and rivers, often capturing river crossings heavily defended by hostile warlords and Nationalist troops, such as the Luding Bridge.
In July 1935, the troops under Mao united with the Second Front Army, led by He Long and Xiao Ke, which had retreated west from from Henan. After disagreement over the direction in which the troops should move, the two forces split up.<ref name=step>Indo-Asian News Service (October 22, 2006): Retracing Mao's Long March (Retrieved 23 November 2006)</ref> The Second Front Army moved northwest, to establish a base in Ningxia province.<ref>New Long March 2: Second Front Army (retrieved 23 November 2006)</ref> Mao's troops traversed several swamps and suffered ambushes from the Tibetans and the Hui. Finally in October 1935, his army reached Shaanxi province.
All along the way, the Communist Army confiscated property and weapons from local warlords and landlords, while recruiting peasants and the poor. Nevertheless, only some 8,000 troops under Mao's command, the First Front Army, ultimately made it to the final destination of Yan'an in 1935. Of these, less than 7,000 were among the original 100,000 soldiers who had started the march. A variety of factors contributed to the losses including fatigue, hunger & cold, sickness, desertion, and military casualties. During the retreat, membership in the party fell from 300,000 to around 40,000.<ref>Yang, Benjamin (1990). From Revolution to Politics: Chinese Communists on the Long March (in English). Westview Press, p. 233. ISBN 081-3376-72-6.</ref>
[edit] Aftermath
While costly, the Long March gave the Communist Party of China (CCP) the isolation it needed, allowing its army to recuperate and rebuild in the north of China. It also was vital in helping the CCP to gain a positive reputation among the peasants due to the determination and dedication of the surviving participants of the Long March. Mao wrote in 1935 "The Long March is a manifesto. It has proclaimed to the world that the Red Army is an army of heroes, while the imperialists and their running dogs, Chiang Kai-shek and his like, are impotent."<ref>Mao Zedung, in On Tactics against Japanese Imperialism (December 27, 1935): "The Characteristics of the Present Political Situation" (Retrieved November 25, 2006)</ref> In addition, policies ordered by Mao for all soldiers to follow, the Eight Points of Attention, instructed the army to avoid harm to or disrespect for the peasants, in spite of the desperate need for food and supplies. This policy won support for the Communists among the rural peasants.<ref name=step/>
Hostilities ceased while the Nationalists and Chinese Communists formed a nominal alliance during the Second Sino-Japanese War from 1937 until 1945. During these years, the Chinese Communist Party persevered and strengthened its influence. The Red Army fought a disciplined and organized guerilla campaign against superior Japanese forces, allowing it to gain experience. Following the end of World War II, the resurgent Communist Eighth Route Army, later called the People's Liberation Army, returned to drive the Kuomintang out of Mainland China to the island of Taiwan. Since the establishment of the People's Republic of China in 1949, the Long March has been glorified as an example of the Communist Party's strength and resilience. The Long March solidified Mao's status as the undisputed leader of the CCP. Other participants in the March also went on to become prominent party leaders, including Zhu De, Lin Biao, Liu Shaoqi, Dong Biwu, Ye Jianying, Li Xiannian, Yang Shangkun, Zhou Enlai and Deng Xiaoping.
In 2003, controversy arose about the distance covered by Mao's First Front Army in the Long March.<ref>CNN (November 5, 2003: Mao's long March 'comes up short' (Retrieved November 25, 2006)</ref> The figure of 25,000 li (12,500 kilometres or about 8,000 miles) was Mao's estimate, quoted by his biographer Edgar Snow in Red Star Over China, published not long after the end of the Long March in 1935. In 2003, two China Daily editors, Ed Jocelyn and Andrew McEwen<ref name=step/>, retraced the route in 384 days<ref>China Daily (November 23, 2003): Stepping into history (retrieved 23 November 2006)</ref>, and in their 2006 book estimated the March actually covered about 6,000 km (3,700 miles). Their report has been disputed by the the Chinese media.<ref>Richard Spencer, Telegraph Media Group Limited (April 3, 2006): British pair under attack for doubts over Mao's march (retrieved 23 November 2006)</ref>
[edit] References
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[edit] Further reading
- Jocelyn, Ed & McEwen, Andrew (March 2006). The Long March (in English). Constable and Robinson, 320 pages. ISBN 184-5292-55-3.
- Kampen, Thomas (2000). Mao Zedong, Zhou Enlai and the Evolution of the Chinese Communist Leadership (in English). Nordic Institute of Asian Studies, pp. 66-83. ISBN 878-7062-76-3.
- Salisbury, Harrison Evans (1985). The Long March : The Untold Story (in English). Harper & Row, New York, 419 pages. ISBN 006-0390-44-1.
- Snow, Edward (1968 Revised Edition). Red Star Over China (in English). Grove Press, 534 pages. ISBN 080-2150-93-4.
- Yang, Benjamin (1990). From Revolution to Politics: Chinese Communists on the Long March (in English). Westview Press, 240 pages. ISBN 081-3376-72-6.
[edit] External links
- General Information
- Key events of the Long March - Account of the Long March by the China Daily
- Retracing Mao's Long March - Report on the modern expeditions by Jocelyn & McEwen along the Long March routes
- Illustrations, Maps & Posters
- Map of primary route - Locations of the First Front Army route with dates
- Long March routes of the Communist armies - Routes of the First, Second and Fourth Front Armies
- Site of the Zunyi Conference - Photo and description of the building in which the landmark 1935 politburo meeting was held
- Luding Bridge - Chinese propaganda posters depicting the battle for Luding Bridge
- Commemorations
- The Long March: 70 Years On - Official Chinese website marking the 70th Anniversary of Long March
- "Marking the 70th anniversary of the victory of the Red Army's Long March" - PLA Daily (Peoples Liberation Army newspaper) web portal
- Art on a Long March - A contemporary art exhibition presented for the public at sites along the route of Mao's Long March.ca:Llarga Marxa
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