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Mali Empire

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The Mali Empire (1235-1546) was a medieval state of the Mandinka, a Mandé people of West Africa. The empire was founded by Sundiata Keita and became renowned for the generosity and wealth of its rulers, especially Mansa Kankan Musa I. The Mali Empire had profound cultural influences on West Africa allowing the spread of its language, laws and customs along the Niger River.

Contents

[edit] Pre-Imperial Mali

[edit] The Kangaba Province

The Mandinka Kingdom of Mali had already existed for several centuries as a small state just to the south of the Soninké empire of Wagadou, better known as the Ghana Empire. During the height of Wagadou's power, the Mandinka heartland became one of its provinces. Kangaba served as the capital and name of this province from which the subjugated kings ruled over the Mandinka in the name of the Ghanas.

[edit] The Twelve Kingdoms

Wagadou's control over the Mandinka came to a halt after 14 years of war with the Almoravides, Muslim fanatics of mostly Berber extraction from North Africa. The Almoravide general Abu Bekr captured and burned the Wagadou capital of Kumbi Saleh in 1076 ending its dominance over the area. However, the Almoravides were unable to hold onto the area, and it was quickly retaken by the weakened Soninké. The Kangaba province, free of both Soninké and Berber influence, splintered into twelve kingdoms each ruled by a king (called a fama) or prince (called a maghan). The former province of Kangaba split in half with the Dodougou territory to the northeast and the Kri territory to the southwest. The tiny kingdom of Mali was one of several in the Kri area.

[edit] The Kaniaga Rulers

In approximately 1140 the Sosso Kingdom of Kaniaga, a former vassal of Wagadou, began conquering the lands of its former masters. By 1180 it had even subjugated Wagadou. In 1203, the Sosso king Soumaoro of the Kanté clan came to power and reportedly terrorized the Mandinka heartland. He forced the once proud Soninké to pay tribute and stole women and goods from both Dodougou and Kri.

[edit] Sundiata's Mali

[edit] The Lion Prince

During the rise of Kaniaga over the Mandinka and Soninke lands, Sundiata of the Keita clan was born in Mali approximately 1217 AD. Maghan Sundiata was the son of the fama of Mali, Nare Fa also known as Maghan Kon Fatta (the handsome prince), by his second wife Sogolon Kédjou a hunchback. Maghan Sundiata was prophesized to become a great conqueror. To his parent's dread, the prince did not have a promising start. Maghan Sundiata, according to tradition, did not walk until he was seven years old. However, once Sundiata did gain use of his legs he grew strong and and very respected. Sadly for Sundiata, this did not occur before his father died. Despite the fama of Mali's wishes to respect the prophesy and put Sundiata on the throne, the son from his first marriage to Sassouma Bérété was put on the throne. As soon as the son, Dankaran Touman, took the throne he and his mother forced the increasingly popular Sundiata into exile along with his mother and sister. Before Dankaran Touman and his mother could enjoy their unimpeded power, King Soumaoro set his sights on Mali forcing Dankaran to flee to Kissidougou. After many years in exile at the court of Mema, Sundiata was sought out by a Mandinka delegation and begged to combat the Sosso and free Mali forever.

[edit] Battle of Kirina

Returning with the combined armies of Mema, Wagadou and all the rebellious Mandinka kingdoms, Maghan Sundiata led a revolt against the Kaniaga Kingdom. The combined forces of both the northern and southern Mandinka defeated the Sosso army at the Battle of Kirina (then known as Krina) in approximately 1235. This victory resulted in the fall of the Kaniaga kingdom and the rise of Mali Empire. After the victory, King Soumaoro disapeared and the Mandinka stormed the last of the Sosso cities before electing Sundiata as mansa (fama of famas) at the age of only 18.

[edit] The Kouroukan Fouga

Following this victory, Sundiata expanded his Empire to include most of the important parts of West Africa, including the towns of Walata, Tadmekka, and Gao at the southern end of the desert trade routes. Sundiata also instituted a universal constitution for the Mandinka and all subjects of his new empire. At a site just outside the town of Kangaba (then known as Ka-Ba), he formalized the government and established the Gbara or Great Assembly. He also put in place social and economic reforms including prohibitions on the maltreatment of prisoners and slaves, installing women in government circles and a system of banter between clans which clearly stated who could say what about in who. Also, Sundiata divided the lands amongst the people assuring everyone had a place in the empire. This entire series of events became known as the "Kouroukan Fouga" or division of the world. The site where this oral document was presented is also called Kouroukan Fouga. The document was preserved by court historians called djeli, now commonly known as griots.

Another crucial fact established at the Kouroukan Fouga was the supremacy of Mali over all other states in the empire. All mansas would have to be chosen from the Keita clan, and the Mali kingdom's capital of Niani (in present-day Guinea) would become the imperial capital. Sundiata returned to and rebuilt the capital of Niani and made it the most important center of trade in West Africa for the next 200 years.

[edit] Imperial Mali

[edit] Rise

Apart from establishing West Africa's earliest preserved constitution, Sundiata also implemented many other innovations to the burgeoning empire. He turned many of his soldiers into farmers, and formed a permanent army so the work of the field could go on even in times of war. Religious freedom was preserved for all peoples and the borders were opened to trade so that the goods of the desert and of the forest could be exchanged in the empire of Mali.

[edit] Territory

At its height, the Mali Empire covered nearly all the area between the Sahara Desert and coastal forests. It extended all the way to the Atlantic Ocean and as far east as Niamey in modern day Niger. By 1325, the Mali Empire covered some 9,000 square miles. Between 40 and 50 million people of various religions and ethnicities lived under the rule of the mansas. It encompassed an area larger than all of Western Europe at that time. During this period only the Mongol Empire was larger.

A sophisticated system of governance was essential to maintain such a vast state. For this, the Mali Empire was divided into twelve provinces or tinkurus at the beginning of Sundiata's reign when the empire was only 1,000 miles east to west. Two more tinkurus would be added by his successors increasing the empire's provinces to fourteen. The original twelve tinkurus were formed out of the twelve kingdoms, which had subjugated themselves to Sundiata at the Kouroukan Fouga. These famas became known as farbas, a combination of the Mandinka words "farin ba" meaning great farin. The farba's descendants could inherit their province, but they had to be approved by the mansa. The mansa could also replace a farba if he got out of control. Each kingdom governed by a farba became an imperial provinces called a tinkuru. The 12 original tinkurus included:

  • Audaghost or Tegdaoust, formerly of the Ghana Empire
  • Bambouk, a gold producing province south of the Senegal Highlands
  • Bati, western province governed by a farba called the Batimansa
  • Bouré, a gold producing province north of the Tinkisso River
  • Cassa, western province governed by the Cassamansa, hence the Casamance River
  • Diara, the remainder of the Kaniaga Kingdom
  • Dyolof a.k.a. Wolof, which would one day split off and become its own empire
  • Kita, a central province west of Niani usually governed by minor nobles
  • Konkodougou, another province usually governed by minor nobles and their descendents
  • Oualata, formerly of the Ghana Empire
  • Soura, a military province on the northern border governed by a Farin-Soura
  • Zouma, a military province on the southern border governed by a Sankar-Zouma

Each tinkuru was divided into an imperial county called a kafo. Within each kafo were villages, towns and cities all collectively called dougous. While the kafos were administered by nobles within the farba's circle (usually a maghan of some relation), each dougou was controlled by a locally elected town chief called a dougou-tigui. Dougou-Tiguis were elected by each tribe's chief of kun-tigui. Kun-Tiguis were responsible for representing their tribes and leading the tribe's quota of warriors in battle.

The Mali Empire also contained three freely allied states. Each contained a semi-independent ruler with a status comparitively higher than that of the farbas. Of the three rulers, the mansa is by far the most powerful. All the tinkurus belong to him and his descendants. The three freely allied states included:

  • Mali, ruled by a mansa; the paramount state from which the empire gets its name
  • Mema, ruled by a fama; it was the land that reared Sundiata to manhood while in exile
  • Wagadou, ruled by a ghana; it was reduced to the lone province of Baghana, and also aided Sundiata

[edit] Representation

The Mali Empire was established in the Gbara or great assembly. The empire's constitution dictated that the people were divided into and represented by 29 clans and one "speaker". Each clan had one seat at the assembly and a voice in the most important matters of state.

[edit] Carriers of Quiver

The bulk of the clans were in the Djon-Tan-Nor-Woro, meaning "Carriers of Quiver". As the name suggest, they were responsible for defending the state. These were the clans of the individuals that governed the empire's territories. Twelve seats were reserved each farba's clan. One seat was reserved for a special governor of the bush who held authority over the forests. Two seats were occupied by the rulers of the three allied states. These were Mali, Mema and Wagadou represented by the mansa, fama and ghana respectively. The ghana of Wagadou and the fama of Mema were kings in their own right, but recognized the supremacy of the mansa over the entire empire.

[edit] Guardians of Faith

Five seats of the Gbara were reserved for the Mori-Kanda-Lolou meaning "Guardians of Faith". These clans were composed of marabouts educated in the teachings of Islam. These clans were charged with knowing Islamic law, which was influential to varrying extents throughout the empire. They were also the spiritual guides for the sixteen ruling clans.

[edit] Masters of Word

Another five seats of the Gbara was occupied by the royal djeli clans. The djeli were oral historians who recorded the history of the empire and its most important figures. Events were chronicled in song, thus there are few written records on Imperial Mali. The djeli were professionals at their craft and trained their entire lives in this art. Today, the djeli are widely known as griots -- a French term for these "Masters of Word" as they are regarded. It is through their descendants that much of the Mali Empire's history is preserved. There were four djeli clans whom always had seats at the assembly. A fifth seat was reserved for the belen-tigui or master of ceremony. The belen-tigui was the mansa's personal djeli and "speaker" of the Gbara. At assembly, he sat on a platform similar to the other delegates but raised higher than all (including the mansa). The djeli, other than recording the motions of the assembly, also probably served as a traditionalist counter-balance to the Islamic Mori-Kanda-Lolou.

[edit] Workers of Nyama

The last four seats of the Gbara were reserved to the craftsmen clans. These craftsmen were believed to have power over mystical forces that allowed them to perform certain arts such as blacksmithing, carpentry, tanning and masonry. Because they could contol such forces, they were called nyamakala. The reasoning behind their inclusion in the Gbara may have been because of their revered status as semi-magical individuals or their value as the suppliers of many manufactured goods essential for the empire's defense (arrows, spears, shoes, etc.)

[edit] Military

[edit] Strength

The Mali Empire maintained a professional, full-time army in order to defend its borders. The entire nation was mobilized with each tribe obligated to a quota of fighting age men. Contemporary historians present during the height and decline of the Mali Empire consistently count its army at 100,000 infantry and 10,000 cavalry, which could be called any spot in the realm on short notice.

[edit] Divisions

The forces were divided into two separate armies with one commanded by the governor of the Soura tinkuru in the north and the commanded by the governor of Zouma tinkuru in the south. The Farin and Sankaran of these respective tinkurus were the highest ranking (and apparently the only) generals in the empire and appointed by the mansa.

[edit] Infantry

An infantryman, regardless of weapon (bow, spear, etc.) was called a sofa. Sofas were organized in tribal units led by tribal chiefs. The smallest unit of sofas was commanded by a kun-tigui. As mentioned before, kun-tiguis led quotas of their tribesmen into battle once called to service by their lord. A kun-tigui commanded an infantry unit of 10 to 20 men called a kelé-kulu meaning "war heap". An officer commanding ten kelé-kulus (100 to 200 infantry) was in charge of a kelé-bolo meaning "war arm". These officers received the titled bolo kun-tigui.

[edit] Cavalry

Cavalry served as an equal if not more important element of the army. Then as today, horses were expensive and only the nobles took them into battle. A Mandinka cavalry unit was composed of 50 horsemen and called a seré. These were commanded by a kelé-tigui or war chief. Aside from commanding a personal contingent of horsemen, a Kelé-Tigui had two or more bolo kun-tiguis obliged to follow him onto the battlefield. Kelé-Tiguis, as the name suggest, were professional soldiers and highest rank on the field short of the Farin or Sankaran.

[edit] Equipment

The common sofa was armed with a wooden shield and a stabbing spear called a tamba. Bowmen also formed a large portion of the sofas using iron tipped, poisoned and flaming arrows when occasion called. While spearmen and bowmen were the mainstay of the Mandinka infantry, swords and lances of local and foreign manufacture were the choice weapons of the Mandinka cavlary. Imperial Mali's horsemen also used quilted armor and chain mail for defense against arrows.

[edit] Economy

The Mali Empire flourished because of trade above all else. It contained two immense gold mines within its borders unlike the Ghana Empire, which was only a transit point for gold. The empire taxed every ounce of gold or salt that entered its borders. There was no standard currency throughout the realm, but several forms were prominent by region.

[edit] Gold

Gold nuggets were the exclusive property of the mansa, and were illegal to trade within his borders. All gold was immediately handed over to the imperial treasury in return for an equal value of gold dust. Gold dust had been weighed and bagged for use at least since the reign of the Ghana Empire. Mali borrowed the practice to stem inflation of the substance, since it was so prominent in the region. The most common measure for gold within the realm was the ambiguous mithqal (4.5 grams of gold). This terms was used interchangebly with dinar, though it is unclear if coined currency was used in the empire. Gold dust was used all over the empire, but was not valued equally in all regions.

[edit] Salt

The next great unit of exchange in the Mali Empire was salt. Salt was as valuable if not more valuable than gold in Sub-Saharan Africa. It was cut into pieces and spent on goods with close to equal buying power throughout the empire. While it was as good as gold in the north, it was even better in the south. The people of the south needed salt for their diet, but it was extremely rare. The northern region on the other hand had no shortage of salt. Every year merchants entered Mali via the Oualata tinkuru with camel loads of salt to sell in Niani. According to historians of the period, a camel load of salt could fetch 10 dinars worth of gold in the north and 20 to 40 in the south.

[edit] Copper

Copper was also a valued commodity in imperial Mali. Copper, traded in bars, was mined from Tahkeeda in the north and traded in the south for gold. Contemporary sources claim 60 copper bars traded for 100 dinars of gold.

[edit] Sundiata's successors

Sundiata's son, Mansa Wali Keita, succeeded him to the throne following his death (c. 1255). Mansa Wali Keita undertook the Hajj, expanded the empire's borders and significantly increased agricultural production, but his adopted brothers Ouati Keita (r. 1270 - 1274) and Khalifa Keita (r. 1274 - 1275) were weak kings and accomplished little. They were followed by Sundiata's brother Abu Bakr also known as Manding Bory. Mansa Abubakari I was usurped by a former general and slave of Sundiata Sakura. Mansa Sakura added the western tinkuru of Tekrur to Mali.

[edit] Height of glory

Sundiata's grandnephew, Mansa Kankan Musa I or Musa I, ruled over the Mali Empire while it was the source of almost half the Old World's gold exported from mines in Bambuk and Boure. Musa was a devoted Muslim and Islamic scholarship flourished under his rule. With Musa as a benefactor, Sankore University in Timbuktu reached its height. Craftsmen and Islamic scholars came from all over the Muslim world to receive a free education at Sankore's guilds and madrasas. During this zenith, Mali contained some 400 dougous (villages, towns, cities). Scholars of the era claim it took no less than a year to traverse the empire from east to west. Musa is most famous for his hajj in 1324. On his pilgrimage to Mecca, Musa gave gold away generously. When he passed through Cairo, historian al-Maqurizi noted that "the members of his entourage proceeded to buy Turkish and Ethiopian slave girls, singing girls and garments, so that the rate of the gold dinar fell by six dirhams." He gave out so much gold that the value of the commodity didn't recover for at least 12 years. Musa was so generous that he ran out of money and had to take out a loan to be able to afford the journey home. Musa's hajj, and especially his gold, caught the attention of both the Islamic and Christian worlds. Consequently, the name of Mali and Timbuktu appeared on 14th century world maps.

The famous Moroccan traveller Ibn Battuta visited the Mali Empire in the years 1352 and 1353, and his detailed account is an important first-hand written description of this empire.

[edit] Decline and fall

Not long after Musa's reign, the Empire of Mali went into decline. A civil war followed the 1360 death of Musa's brother Suleyman and the nine-month reign of his son Kassa. Musa's grandson, Mari Diata II, is remembered by Tunisian historian Ibn Khaldun as a debauched, unpopular tyrant, and even the administrative skills of his son Musa II failed to halt the decline.

The Mossi of present-day Burkina Faso began to make inroads into Malian territory in the south, while the Tuaregs advanced from the Sahara to the north. With an increasing lack of central control, a number of vassal states declared their independence, most notably the Songhai of Gao. This new state rapidly expanded into an empire starting around 1460, claiming much of the territory of the crumbling Mali Empire and marking its effective end.

Mali continued to exist and exert some control over its heartland into the first half of the 16th century. They asked the Portuguese for military assistance in hope of saving their empire but to no avail. The city of Niani finally fell to Songhai forces in 1546.

[edit] Partial list of mansas of the Mali Empire

[edit] See also

[edit] External links

fr:Empire du Mali ja:マリ帝国 ko:말리 제국 nl:Koninkrijk Mali pt:Império Mali fi:Malin kuningaskunta sv:Maliriket

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