Monosodium glutamate
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
- This article is about monosodium glutamate as a food additive. For an overview of the chemistry of glutamic acid, see glutamic acid.
Monosodium glutamate, sodium glutamate, flavour enhancer 621, EU food additive code: E621, HS code: 29224220 (IUPAC names: 2-aminopentanedioic acid, 2-aminoglutaric acid, 1-aminopropane-1,3-dicarboxylic acid), commonly known as MSG, Ajinomoto or Vetsin, is a sodium salt of glutamic acid. MSG is a food additive, popularly marketed as a "flavour enhancer". It was discovered and patented in 1909 by Ajinomoto Corporation in Japan. In its pure form, it appears as a white crystalline powder; when dissolved in water (or saliva) it rapidly dissociates into free sodium and glutamate ions (glutamate is the anionic form of glutamic acid, a naturally occurring amino acid).
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[edit] Umami
MSG stimulates specific receptors located in taste buds such as the amino acid receptor T1R1/T1R3 or other glutamate receptors like the metabotropic receptors (mGluR4 and mGluR1) which induce the taste known as umami, one of the five basic tastes (the word umami is a loanword from Japanese; it is also referred to as "savory" or "meaty").
[edit] Sources of glutamate
[edit] Natural Occurrence
Glutamate itself is a widespread amino acid: it is found naturally in human bodies and in protein-containing foods, such as peas, mushrooms, seaweed, tomatoes, fermented soy products, yeast extracts, nuts, legumes, meats and most dairy products. Some of the glutamate in foods is in a "free" form; and only this free form of glutamate can enhance the flavor of foods. Part of the flavour-enhancing effect of tomatoes, certain cheeses, and fermented or hydrolyzed protein products (such as soy sauce and soy bean paste) is therefore due to the presence of free glutamate.
Asian cuisine originally used a natural seaweed broth, such as kelp, to bring up the umami taste in soups. Manufacturers, such as Ajinomoto, use selected strains of Micrococcus glutamicus bacteria in a bath of nutrient. The bacteria are selected for their ability to excrete glutamic acid, which is then separated from the nutrient bath, purified, and made into its sodium salt, monosodium glutamate.
[edit] Other Sources
Hydrolyzed proteins, or protein hydrolysates, are acid- or enzymatically treated proteins from certain foods. They contain salts of free amino acids, such as glutamate, at levels of 5 to 20 percent. Hydrolyzed proteins are used in the same manner as MSG in many foods, such as canned vegetables, soups, and processed meats.
Another source of MSG is fruits, vegetables and nuts that have been sprayed with Auxigro, a growth enhancer that contains 30% glutamic acid.
[edit] Discovery
Despite its ubiquity in common food products, the flavour contributions made by glutamate and other amino acids were only scientifically identified early in the twentieth century. In 1907, Japanese researcher Kikunae Ikeda of the Tokyo Imperial University identified brown crystals left behind after the evaporation of a large amount of kombu broth as glutamic acid. These crystals, when tasted, reproduced the ineffable but undeniable flavour he detected in many foods, most especially in seaweed. Professor Ikeda termed this flavour "umami." He then patented a method of mass-producing a crystalline form of glutamic acid, MSG.<ref>http://www.jpo.go.jp/seido_e/rekishi_e/kikunae_ikeda.htm</ref>
[edit] Commercialization
The Ajinomoto (味の素) company was formed to manufacture and market MSG in Japan; the name 'Ajinomoto' means "essence of taste". It was introduced to the United States in 1947 as Ac'cent flavor enhancer.
Modern commercial MSG is produced by fermentation<ref>http://www.ajinomoto.com/amino/eng/product.html</ref> of starch, sugar beets, sugar cane, or molasses. About 1.5 million metric tons were sold in 2001, with 4% annual growth expected.<ref>http://www.ajinomoto.co.jp/ajinomoto/A-Company/company/zaimu/pdf/fact/food_biz.pdf</ref> MSG is used commercially as a flavour enhancer, and is added as an ingredient to many snack foods, frozen dinners, and instant meals such as the seasoning mixtures for instant noodles.
[edit] Scientific review
In 1959, FDA classified MSG as a "generally recognized as safe", or GRAS, substance. This action stemmed from the 1958 Food Additives Amendment to the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act, which required premarket approval for new food additives and led FDA to promulgate regulations listing substances, such as MSG, which have a history of safe use or are otherwise GRAS. Since 1970, FDA has sponsored extensive reviews on the safety of MSG, other glutamates and hydrolyzed proteins, as part of an ongoing review of safety data on GRAS substances used in processed foods. One such review was by the Federation of American Societies for Experimental Biology (FASEB) Select Committee on GRAS Substances. In 1980, the committee concluded that MSG was safe at current levels of use but recommended additional evaluation to determine MSG's safety at significantly higher levels of consumption. Additional reports attempted to look at this. In 1986, FDA's Advisory Committee on Hypersensitivity to Food Constituents concluded that MSG poses no threat to the general public but that reactions of brief duration might occur in some people. Other reports gave similar findings:
- A 1991 report by the European Community's (EC) Scientific Committee for Foods reaffirmed MSG's safety and classified its "acceptable daily intake" as "not specified", the most favorable designation for a food ingredient. In addition, the EC Committee said, "Infants, including prematures, have been shown to metabolize glutamate as efficiently as adults and therefore do not display any special susceptibility to elevated oral intakes of glutamate."
- A 1992 report from the Council on Scientific Affairs of the American Medical Association stated that glutamate in any form has not been shown to be a "significant health hazard".
- Also, the 1987 Joint Expert Committee on Food Additives of the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization and the World Health Organization have placed MSG in the safest category of food ingredients.
Scientific knowledge about how the body metabolizes glutamate developed rapidly during the 1980s. Studies showed that glutamate in the body plays an important role in normal functioning of the nervous system. Questions then arose on the role glutamate in food plays in these functions and whether or not glutamate in food contributes to certain neurological diseases.
[edit] Alternate names
In Chinese, it is known as wèijīng (味精), meaning the same as the Japanese name, but using Chinese grammar and character variants.
In Korean, it is called miwon (미원, 味元) which means origin/source of the flavour.
In Japan, an alternate, generic name for the compound (as Ajinomoto (味の素) is a registered trademark) is gurutamin san'natoriumu (グルタミン酸ナトリウム) literally meaning "glutamine acid sodium" or "salt of glutamic acid".
In the Philippines, it is known as vetsin (derived from Chinese 'wèijīng 味精' but through the Min pronunciation).
In India it is known as aginomotto.
In Vietnamese it is known as "mi chinh."
[edit] Health concerns
Recent studies have shown that allergies stemming from the intake of MSG can cause birth defects, and numbness of limbs.
[edit] Location of Health Issues
Despite popular and frequent discussion of MSG related health concerns in the United States, such discussion in Asia, and in Japan, where it was invented, is almost unheard of. Most Japanese when confronted simply say they have never heard of such a problem or discount it as a Western intolerance of Asian food in general.
[edit] MSG intolerance
There have been numerous studies of allergies and/or sensitivities to MSG, attributed to the free glutamic acid component, which has been blamed for causing a wide variety of physical symptoms such as migraines, nausea, digestive upsets, bad dreams, disturbed sleep, drowsiness, heart palpitations, hair loss, asthma, anaphylactic shock, rapidly increasing diabetes, and many other complaints. "Chinese restaurant syndrome" is often used as an example of the symptoms purported to be caused by MSG.
Prompted by continuing public interest and a flurry of glutamate-related studies in the late 1980s, FDA contracted with FASEB in 1992 to review the available scientific data. The agency asked FASEB to address 18 questions dealing with:
- the possible role of MSG in eliciting MSG symptom complex
- the possible role of dietary glutamates in forming brain lesions and damaging nerve cells in humans
- underlying conditions that may predispose a person to adverse effects from MSG
- the amount consumed and other factors that may affect a person's response to MSG
- the quality of scientific data and previous safety reviews.
FASEB held a two-day meeting and convened an expert panel that thoroughly reviewed all the available scientific literature on this issue. FASEB completed the final report, over 350 pages long, and delivered it to FDA on July 31, 1995. While not a new study, the report offers a new safety assessment based on the most comprehensive existing evaluation to date of glutamate safety. Among the report's key findings:
- An unknown percentage of the population may react to MSG and develop MSG symptom complex, a condition characterized by one or more of the following symptoms:
- burning sensation in the back of the neck, forearms and chest
- numbness in the back of the neck, radiating to the arms and back
- tingling, warmth and weakness in the face, temples, upper back, neck and arms
- facial pressure or tightness
- chest pain
- headache
- nausea
- rapid heartbeat
- weak pulse
- nightmares
- bronchospasm (difficulty breathing) in MSG-intolerant people with asthma
- drowsiness
- weakness.
- In otherwise healthy MSG-intolerant people, the MSG symptom complex tends to occur within one hour after eating 3 grams or more of MSG on an empty stomach or without other food. A typical serving of glutamate-treated food contains less than 0.5 grams of MSG. A reaction is most likely if the MSG is eaten in a large quantity or in a liquid, such as a clear soup.
- Severe, poorly controlled asthma may be a predisposing medical condition for MSG symptom complex.
- No evidence suggests that dietary MSG or glutamate contributes to Alzheimer's disease, Huntington's chorea, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, AIDS dementia complex, or any other long-term or chronic diseases.
- No evidence suggests that dietary MSG causes brain lesions or damages nerve cells in humans, but there is in infant mice.
- The level of vitamin B6 in a person's body plays a role in glutamate metabolism, and the possible impact of marginal B6 intake should be considered in future research.
[edit] Obesity
MSG has been used in newborn laboratory mice to induce adult obesity because of the lesions that it provokes in the arcuate nucleus of the hypothalamus. However, the blood-brain barrier of newborn babies doesn't resemble the one of neonate mice, therefore, as in adults, glutamate has a low penetration level in the central nervous system[1]. Only the luminal membrane of the blood-brain barrier contains facilitative carriers for glutamine and glutamate.
[edit] Excitotoxicity
Glutamic acid is an amino acid commonly found in foods. Because MSG is absorbed very quickly (unlike glutamic acid-containing proteins in foods), it is known that MSG could spike blood plasma levels of glutamate.<ref>Stegink LD, Filer LJ Jr, Baker GL (1985). "Plasma glutamate concentrations in adult subjects ingesting monosodium L-glutamate in consomme". American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 42: 220–225.</ref><ref>Stegink LD, Filer LJ Jr, Baker GL (1987). "Plasma amino acid concentrations in normal adults ingesting aspartame and monosodium L-glutamate as part of a soup/beverage meal". Metabolism 36 (11): 1073–1079.</ref><ref>Himwich WA, Petersen IM (1954). "Ingested sodium glutamate and plasma levels of glutamic acid". Journal of Applied Physiology 7 (2): 196–199.</ref> Glutamic acid is in a class of chemicals known as excitotoxins. Abnormally high levels of excitotoxins have been shown in hundreds of animal studies to cause damage to areas of the brain unprotected by the blood brain barrier and that a variety of chronic diseases can arise out of this neurotoxicity.<ref>Meldrum B. (1993). "Amino acids as dietary excitotoxins: a contribution to understanding neurodegenerative disorders". Brain research. Brain research reviews 18 (3): 293–314.</ref><ref>Nemeroff, C. (1980). "Monosodium Glutamate-Induced Neurotoxicity: Review of the Literature and Call for Further Research". Nutrition & Behavior edited by Sanford A. Miller (U.S. Food & Drug Administration): 177–211.</ref> The debate among scientists on the significance of these findings has been raging since the early 1970s, when Dr. John Olney found that high levels of glutamic acid caused damage to the brains of infant mice.<ref>Olney JW, Ho OL (1970). "Brain damage in infant mice following oral intake of glutamate, aspartate or cysteine". Nature 227 (5258): 609–611.</ref> The debate is complex and has focused on several areas:
- Whether the increase in plasma glutamate levels from typical ingestion levels of MSG is enough to cause neurotoxicity in one dose or over time.
- Whether humans are susceptible to the neurotoxicity from glutamic acid seen in some animal experiments. It is known that the glutamate ion is important in memory retrieval in humans.
- Whether neurotoxicity from excitotoxins is caused by the combined effect of glutamic acid and other excitotoxins such as aspartic acid from aspartame.
At a meeting of the Society for Neuroscience, the delegates had a split opinion on the issues related to neurotoxic effects from excitotoxic amino acids found in some additives such as MSG.<ref>Barinaga, M. (1990). "Amino Acids: How Much Excitement is Too Much?". Science 247 (4938): 20–22.</ref>
Some scientists believe that humans and other primates are not as susceptible to excitotoxins as rodents and therefore there is little concern with glutamic acid from MSG.<ref>Abraham R, Swart J, Golberg L, Coulston F. (1975). "Electron microscopic observations of hypothalami in neonatal rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta) after administration of monosodium-L-glutamate". Experimental and molecular pathology 23 (2): 203–213.</ref><ref>Reynolds WA, Butler V, Lemkey-Johnston N (1976). "Hypothalamic morphology following ingestion of aspartame or MSG in the neonatal rodent and primate: a preliminary report". Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health 2 (2): 471–480.</ref> While they agree that the combined effects of all food-based excitotoxins should be considered,<ref>Stegink LD, Filer LJ Jr, Baker GL (1982). "Effect of aspartame plus monosodium L-glutamate ingestion on plasma and erythrocyte amino acid levels in normal adult subjects fed a high protein meal". American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 36 (6): 1145–1152.</ref> their measurements of the blood plasma levels of glutamic acid after ingestion of monosodium glutamate and aspartame demonstrate that there is not a cause for concern.<ref>Stegink LD, Filer LJ Jr, Baker GL (1982). "Plasma and erythrocyte amino acid levels in normal adult subjects fed a high protein meal with and without added monosodium glutamate". Journal of Nutrition 112 (10): 1953–1160.</ref> Other scientists feel that primates are susceptible to excitotoxic damage<ref>Olney JW, Sharpe LG, Feigin RD (1972). "Glutamate-induced brain damage in infant primates". Journal of Neuropathology and Experimental Neurology 31 (3): 464–488.</ref> and that humans concentrate excitotoxins in the blood more than other animals.<ref>Stegink LD, et al. (1978). "Comparative Metabolism of Glutamate in the Mouse, Monkey, and Man". Glutamic Acid: Advances in Biochemistry and Physiology (Edited: Filer LJ): 85–102. See: http://www.holisticmed.com/aspartame/abuse/stegink.jpg ..</ref> Based on these findings, they feel that humans are approximately 5-6 times more susceptible to the effects of excitotoxins than rodents are.<ref>Olney JW (1984). "Excitotoxic food additives—relevance of animal studies to human safety". Neurobehavioral toxicology and teratology 6 (6): 455–462.</ref> While they agree that typical use of MSG does not spike glutamic acid to extremely high levels in adults, they are particularly concerned with potential effects in infants and young children<ref>Olney JW (1990). "Excitotoxin-mediated neuron death in youth and old age". Progress in brain research 86: 37–51.</ref> and the potential long-term neurodegenerative effects of small-to-moderate spikes on plasma excitotoxin levels.<ref>Olney JW (1984). "Excitotoxins in foods". Neurobehavioral toxicology and teratology 15 (3): 535–544.</ref>
[edit] Ingredient listing
[edit] United States
Under current FDA regulations, when MSG is added to a food, it must be identified as "monosodium glutamate" in the label's ingredient list. Each ingredient used to make a food must be declared by its name in this list.
While technically MSG is only one of several forms of free glutamate used in foods, consumers frequently use the term MSG to mean all free glutamate. The free glutamic acid component of MSG may also be present in a wide variety of other additives, including hydrolyzed vegetable proteins, hydrolyzed yeast, soy extracts, and "natural flavorings".
For this reason, FDA considers labels such as "No MSG" or "No Added MSG" to be misleading if the food contains ingredients that are sources of free glutamates, such as hydrolyzed protein.
In 1993, FDA proposed adding the phrase "(contains glutamate)" to the common or usual names of certain protein hydrolysates that contain substantial amounts of glutamate. For example, if the proposal were adopted, hydrolyzed soy protein would have to be declared on food labels as "hydrolyzed soy protein (contains glutamate)." However, if FDA issues a new proposal, it would probably supersede this 1993 one.
In 1994, FDA received a citizen's petition requesting changes in labeling requirements for foods that contain MSG or related substances. The petition asks for mandatory listing of MSG as an ingredient on labels of manufactured and processed foods that contain manufactured free glutamic acid. It further asks that the amount of free glutamic acid or MSG in such products be stated on the label, along with a warning that MSG may be harmful to certain groups of people. FDA has not yet taken action on the petition.
[edit] References
- Jordan Sand, "A Short History of MSG: Good Science, Bad Science, and Taste Cultures", Gastronomica 5:4 (Fall 2005). History of MSG and its marketing in Japan, Taiwan (under the Japanese), China, and the U.S.
- Federal Register, Dec. 4, 1992 (FR 57467)
- Federal Register, Jan. 6, 1993 (FR 2950)
- FDA Consumer, December 1993, "Food Allergies: When Eating is Risky."
[edit] Notes
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[edit] See also
[edit] External links
- http://www.cfsan.fda.gov/~lrd/msg.html
- http://www.foodstandards.gov.au/mediareleasespublications/publications/shoppersguide/index.cfm
- Could MSG make a comeback? (Slate)
- Link page to external chemical sources.be:Глутамат натрыю
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