Mountaintop removal

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

1 The Process
- 1.1 Economics
- 1.2 Legislation
2 Criticism
3 See also
4 External links
5 References

Mountaintop removal (MTR) is a relatively new form of coal mining that involves the mass restructuring of earth in order to reach minerals as deep as 1,000 feet below the surface. MTR requires that the targeted land be clear-cut and then leveled by use of explosives. The debris created is typically scraped into a valley fill. Most mountaintop removal in the United States occurs in West Virginia and Eastern Kentucky.<ref>Where Coal from Mountaintop Removal Is Used. Appalachian Voices. Retrieved on September 18, 2006.</ref>

[edit] The Process

In mountaintop removal mining, the targeted land is clear-cut of all trees. Miners then use explosives to remove the overburden (the rock and soil that lies above a coal seam), exposing the coal. The overburden is pushed into a nearby valley or hollow, creating a pile below called valley fill. Meanwhile, machinery removes the coal, and it is transported to a processing plant and washed. Millions of gallons of waste from coal processing, called slurry, is often stored nearby in open pools restrained by earthen dams. Because coal usually exists in multiple seams separated by rock, miners can repeat this process over a dozen times on a single mountain, lowering its height with each seam mined. Kentucky, Wyoming and West Virginia, the three leading coal-producing states, each use more than 1000 tons of high explosives per day for surface mining.<ref>U.S. Geological Survey report on consumption of explosivies.</ref>

[edit] Economics

Half the electricity in the United States is produced by coal-burning generating plants.

Mountaintop removal and similar forms of surface mining allow easy access to coal in certain geologic areas. It is often used to retrieve low-sulfur coal, which became very desirable as a result of amendments to the Clean Air Act that tightened emissions limits on high-sulfur coal processing.

Unlike more traditional underground mining, which usually requires hundreds of miners to extract minerals, mountaintop removal is lucrative for coal companies because the use of explosives and large machinery greatly reduces the need for workers. The industry lost 10,000 jobs from 1990 to 1997, as MTR became widespread.<ref>McFerrin. An Odd Partnership: UMW, Coal Association arm in arm.</ref> However, with fewer miners connected to MTR, labor unions have less representation, and the United Mine Workers of America have criticized anti-union practices often associated with MTR. They have also called for additional legal measures to protect communities from the degradation that results from nearby blasting.<ref>Statement of United Mine Workers of America on Mountaintop Removal (2003-07-24).</ref>

In many locations, mountaintop removal is the most cost-effective method of extracting coal for the mine operator. But opponents blame MTR for severe economic debasement in the communities where it occurs. The counties that host MTR are often the poorest in Appalachia. For instance, in McDowell County, West Virginia, which produces the most coal in the state, over 37% of residents live below the poverty line.<ref>What Are the Economic Consequences of Mountaintop Removal in Appalachia?.</ref> In Kentucky, counties with coal mining have economies no better than adjoining counties where no mining occurs.<ref>Economic Impact of Mountaintop Removal on Coal Mining Communities.</ref> Critics also point to decreased economic growth in local communities, especially where mining waste pollutes groundwater and wells that supply drinking water, and where valley fills bury waterways frequented by tourists.

The coal industry also asserts that it is safer to mine coal through surface mining techniques, such as mountaintop removal, than by sending miners underground.<ref>Banerjee, Neela. "Taking On a Coal Mining Practice as a Matter of Faith", The New York Times, 2006-10-28. Retrieved on 2006-10-28.</ref>

Each year, federal and state agencies in the United States issue new permits to allow mountaintop removal mining on 25,000 or more acres of forested mountains.^{[citation needed]}

[edit] Legislation

In the United States, mountaintop removal is allowed by section 515(c)(1) of the Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act (SMCRA). Although most coal mining sites must be reclaimed to the land's pre-mining contour and use, regulatory agencies can issue waivers to allow mountaintop removal.<ref>U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Mountaintop Removal/Valley Fill.</ref> In such cases, SMCRA dictates that reclamation must create "a level plateau or a gently rolling contour with no highwalls remaining."<ref>Public Law 95-87 Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act of 1977 (1977-08-03).</ref>

Coal miners also must obtain permits to deposit valley fill into streams. A federal judge has twice ruled issuance of these permits in violation of the Clean Water Act.<ref>"Key players react cautiously to mountaintop removal decision", The Charleston Gazette, 2002-05-10.</ref> The Bush administration appealed and overturned this ruling in 2003 because the Act does not explicitly define "fill material."<ref>Lazaroff, Cat. "Appeals Court Upholds Mountaintop Removal Mining", Environment News Service, 2003-02-03.</ref> A bill in the House of Representatives, H.R. 2719, would specify that waste does not constitute fill material.<ref>Clean Water Protection Act. Library of Congress (2005-26-05). Retrieved on September 18, 2006.</ref>

[edit] Criticism

Mountaintop removal in West Virginia. Photo by V. Stockman www.ohvec.org [1]

Critics contend that mountaintop removal is a disastrous practice that benefits a small number of corporations at the expense of local communities and the environment. The deposition of valley fill is extremely controversial because the valleys adjacent to mountaintop removal mines often contain streams. A U.S. Environmental Protection Agency environmental impact statement finds that streams near valley fills from mountaintop removal contain high levels of minerals in the water and decreased aquatic biodiversity.<ref name="epaPeis">U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (2005-10-25). Mountaintop Mining/Valley Fills in Appalachia: Final Programmatic Environmental Impact Statement. Retrieved on August 20, 2006.</ref>

Mountaintop removal sites also generate slurry (also called coal sludge) as coal processing waste, which is usually stored in a dam on-site. Many slurry impoundments in West Virginia exceed 500 million gallons in volume, and some, including the Brushy Fork impoundment in Raleigh County, exceed 7 billion gallons.<ref>Brian Vanneman (2004). Tearing Up Appalachia. Sierra Club. Retrieved on September 4, 2006.</ref> Such impoundments can be hundreds of feet high and have close proximity to schools or private residences.<ref>Marsh Fork Elementary, Massey Energy's Shumate Coal Sludge Impoundment and Goals Coal Prep Plant. Retrieved on July 31, 2006.</ref>

High-profile disasters associated with these slurry impoundments have called into question the safety of mountaintop removal. In 1972, a slurry impoundment outside of Logan County, West Virginia burst (see Buffalo Creek Flood); the resulting rush of 130 million gallons of toxic water killed 125 people and caused 50 million dollars in damages. Despite evidence of negligence, the Pittston Company, which owned the compromised dam, called the event an "Act of God."<ref>Environmental Justice Case Study: Buffalo Creek Disaster. Retrieved on October 10, 2006. </ref> In 2002, a 900-foot high, 2,000-foot long fill in Lyburn, West Virginia burst, generating a large wave of sediment that destroyed several cars and houses.<ref>Massey Valley Fill Disaster, Lyburn, WV (2002-07-19). Retrieved on April 3, 2005.</ref>

Blasting at a mountaintop removal mine expels dust from coal and overburden into the air, which then settles onto private property nearby. This dust contains sulfur compounds, which corrodes structures and tombstones. Some MTR opponents allege that the dust is also a public health hazard.<ref>Jessica Tzerman. "Blast Rites", Grist, 2006-08-03. Retrieved on September 4.</ref>

Critics also point to the destruction of various strata of rock and the subsequent elimination of water tables. They cite that this destruction will prohibit future re-growth of forests and any type of plant life larger than grasses. The large ponds of slurry are said to leak, poisoning ground water. They also point to the increased levels of heavy metals to argue that human habitation of regions that have been mined by the process of mountaintop removal will be immensely difficult. Critics state that the only way humans will be able to inhabit these regions is by having drinking water pumped in from outside of the region.^{[citation needed]}

Although MTR sites are usually reclaimed after mining is complete, reclamation has traditionally focused on stabilizing rock and controlling erosion, but not reforesting the area with trees. Quick-growing, non-native grasses, planted to quickly provide vegetation on a site, compete with tree seedlings, and trees have difficulty establishing root systems in compacted backfill.<ref name="epaPeis">Mountaintop Mining/Valley Fills in Appalachia: Final Programmatic Environmental Impact Statement. Retrieved on August 20, 2006.</ref> Consequently, biodiversity suffers in a region of the United States with numerous endemic species.<ref>Biology: Plants, Animals, & Habitats - We live in a hot spot of biodiversity. Apalachicola Region Resources on the Web. Retrieved on September 18, 2006.</ref> Erosion also increases, which can intensify flooding. In the Eastern United States, the Appalachian Regional Reforestation Initiative works to promote the use of trees in mining reclamation.<ref>Appalachian Regional Reforestation Initiative. Retrieved on September 5, 2006.</ref>