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Neopaganism

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See Neo-Pagan (literature) for the term used in literary criticism.

Neopaganism or Neo-Paganism is any of a heterogeneous group of new religious movements, particularly those influenced by ancient, primarily pre-Christian and sometimes pre-Judaic religions.<ref> http://www.neopagan.net/PaganDefs.html Definitions at neopagan.net </ref> Often these are Indo-European in origin, but with a growing component inspired by other religions indigenous to Europe, as well as other parts of the world. As the name implies, these religions are Pagan in nature, though their exact relationship to older forms of Paganism is the source of much contention.

Neopagan beliefs and practices are extremely diverse, and the term itself is rather amorphous. Some Neopagans practice a syncretic melding of various religious practices, folk customs, shamanism and ritual techniques deriving from an extremely wide array of disparate sources, while Reconstructionists attempt to remain historically authentic to varying degrees. Other Neopagans practice a spirituality that is entirely modern in origin.

In the USA, Wicca is the largest Neopagan belief, being an extremely diverse and universalistic modern religion. Many Wiccans endorse some precepts including a reverence for nature and active ecology, venerations of a Goddess and/or Horned God, elements of a variety of ancient mythologies, a belief in magick and sometimes the belief in reincarnation.

The word Pagan comes from the Latin (paganus, literally country dweller), originally meaning rustic or from the country. As the cities converted to Christianity, the rural folk held onto their old beliefs longer. Always pejorative, pagan was applied to polytheistic religions to indicate they were nothing more than the rural superstitions of the uneducated farmers. Neopaganism may be defined as a "post-Christian" new religious movement, and is pronouncedly a modern phenomenon with its roots in early 19th century Romanticism. Other Neopagans stress a connectedness or lineage with older forms of Paganism in terms of an alleged "underground" continuity or tradition but such claims often display fakelore as opposed to outright reconstruction or cultural continuation. [citation needed]

Contents

[edit] History

During Christianization, Christianity absorbed some pagan elements, but it was not until the High Middle Ages that scholarly interest in the cultures and religions of Classical Antiquity began to thrive. Thomas Aquinas attempted to fuse concepts of Graeco-Roman philosophy and cosmology with Christianity. With the Renaissance, Graeco-Roman mythology became omnipresent in Europe, but it was still clad in a Christian interpretation. Neopaganism proper begins only with 19th century Romanticism, and the surge of interest in Germanic paganism with the Viking revival in the British Isles and Scandinavia. Neo-Druidism was established in the United Kingdom by Iolo Morganwg from 1792, and is considered by some to be the first Neopagan revival. [citation needed]

These trends of pagan revival reached Germany in the late 19th century Völkisch movement, which was to become one of the main roots of 20th century Neopaganism. The late 19th century also saw a renewal of interest in various forms of Western occultism, particularly in England. During this period several occult societies were formed such as the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn and the Ordo Templi Orientis. Several prominent writers and artists were involved in these organizations, including William Butler Yeats, Maud Gonne, Arthur Edward Waite, and Aleister Crowley. These groups attempted to syncretize the "exotic" pre-Christian beliefs of the Druids and Egyptians into their belief system, although not necessarily for purely religious purposes. Along with these early occult organizations, there were other social phenomena such as the interest in mediumship, and an interest in magic and other supernatural beliefs which were at an all time high in the late 19th century and early 20th century.

Some evidence suggests that returning colonials and missionaries brought ideas from native traditions home to the United Kingdom. In particular the anthropologist Sir James George Frazer's The Golden Bough (1900) was influential.

The word "Neo pagan" first appears in an essay by F. Hugh O'Donnell, Irish MP in the British House of Commons, written in 1904. [citation needed] O'Donnell, writing about the theater of W. B. Yeats and Maud Gonne, criticized their work as an attempt to "marry Madame Blavatsky with Cuchulainn". Yeats and Gonne, he claimed, openly worked to create a reconstructionist Celtic religion which incorporated Gaelic legend with magic.

In the 1920s Margaret Murray theorized that a witchcraft religion existed underground and in secret, and had survived through the witchcraft prosecutions by ecclesiastic and state courts. Most historians reject Murray's theory, as it was partially based on the similarities of the accounts given by those accused of witchcraft and such similarity is thought to actually derive from the standard set of questions laid out in witch-hunting manuals that were used by interrogators (Hutton, 2001).

In the 1940s Gerald Gardner claimed to have been initiated into a New Forest coven led by a woman named "Old Dorothy", whom some surmise was actually a woman named Dorothy Clutterbuck - an ex-colonial woman returned from India. Gardner had already written about Malay native customs and wrote books about witchcraft. Gardnerian Wicca is used to refer to the traditions of Neopaganism that adhere closely to Gardner's teachings, differentiating it from similar traditions, such as Alexandrian Wicca.

The 1960s and 1970s saw a resurgence in Neo-druidism as well as the rise of Germanic Neopaganism and Ásatrú in the USA and in Iceland. The 1980s and 1990s saw, on the one had, an increasing interest in serious academic research and Reconstructionist Pagan traditions, and on the other, the popularization of a sort of mainstream, New Age, dumbed-down and media-friendly "Wicca Lite".[citation needed] In the 2000s, the community is incredibly large, diverse, and (given some of the above differences) sometimes polarized.

[edit] Historical sources

Many Neopagans and Neopagan traditions attempt to incorporate historical religions and mythologies into their beliefs and practices, often emphasizing the hoary age of their sources. Thus, Wicca in particular is sometimes referred to by its proponents as the "Old Religion", a term popularized by Margaret Murray in the 1920s, while Germanic Neopaganism is referred to as Forn Sed or "the Old Way". Such emphasis on the antiquity of religious tradition is not exclusive to Neopaganism, and is found in many other religions. For example the terms Purana, Sanatana Dharma, and the emphasis on the antiquity of the Ancient Egyptian sources of the Hellenistic Mystery religions. Antiquity of source suggests authenticity and authority to many believers, be they Christian, Jewish, or any faith.

Some claims of continuity between Neopaganism and older forms of Paganism have been shown to be spurious, or outright false, as in the case of Iolo Morganwg's Druid's Prayer. Wiccan beliefs of an ancient monotheistic Goddess were inspired by Marija Gimbutas's description of Neolithic Europe. The factual historical validity of her theories have been disputed by many scholars, including historian Ronald Hutton. Many Neopagans now cautiously cite their predecessors as local folk healers or small religious groups, and a plurality of ancient "Goddess traditions", among others.

However, while Neopagans draw from old religious traditions, they also adapt them. The mythologies of the ancient traditions are not generally considered to be literally factual by Neopagans, in the sense that the Bible and other Abrahamic texts are often thought of by their followers. Many Neopagans are resistant to the concept of scripture.

The mythological sources of Neopaganism are varied, including Celtic, Norse, Greek, Roman, Sumerian, Egyptian and others. Some groups focus solely on one tradition, while others draw from several. For example, Doreen Valiente's text The Charge of the Goddess used materials from The Gospel of Aradia by Charles Leland (1901), as well as material from Aleister Crowley's writings.

Some Neopagans also draw inspiration from modern traditions, including Christianity, Buddhism and others. Since many Neopagan beliefs do not require exclusivity, some Neopagans practice other faiths in parallel or dual trad.

Since many Neopagans take a rather undogmatic religious stance, and sometimes see no one as having authority to deem a source "apocryphal", Neopaganism has been notably prone to fakelore, especially in recent years, as information and misinformation alike have been spread on the Internet and in published mediums. However, many reconstructionist sects like those who practice Theodism or Gaelic Traditionalism do indeed take a dogmatic religious approach, and only recognize certain historical texts and sources as being relevant to their belief system, intentionally eschewing "foreignisms", and having a general disdain for the eclectic mentality that is prevalent amongst most Neopagans. But even with this stated aim, some of these latter groups have also had their share of fakelore and spurious origin myths propagated on the Internet.

[edit] Ecological and mystical currents

Neopaganism generally emphasizes the sanctity of Earth and Nature. Some Neopagans are influenced by Animist traditions of the indigenous Native Americans and Africans. Neopagans often feel a duty to protect the Earth through activism, and support causes such as rainforest protection, Organic farming, permaculture, animal rights, etc. Many Neopagans refer to themselves as following Nature-based spirituality, and this ethic links neopagan spiritual practitioners with indigenous, shamanic, and traditions that supposedly pre-date agricultural civilizations.

[edit] Concepts of the divine

Most Neopagan traditions are polytheistic, but the interpretation of the concept of deity varies widely, including monist, pantheist, dualist, deist, animist, henotheist, psychological and mystical variations and interpretations.

Hutton states that the historical Pagans did not see "All Goddesses as one Goddess; all Gods as one God", but some types of modern Neopagans believe that there is but a single divinity or life force of the universe, which is immanent in the world. The various manifestations and archetypes of this divinity are not viewed as wholly separate, but as different aspects of the divine which are ineffable.

In Wicca, (especially Dianic Wicca) the concept of an Earth or Mother Goddess similar to the Greek Gaia is emphasized. Male counterparts are also evoked, such as the Green Man and the Horned God (who is loosely based on the Celtic Cernunnos.) These duo-theistic philosophies tend to emphasise the God and Goddess' (or Lord and Lady's) genders as being analogous to a concept similar to that of yin and yang in ancient Chinese philosophy; ie, two complementary opposites. However, while many Oriental philosophies explicitly equate weakness with femininity and strength with masculinity, this is not the prevailing attitude in Neopaganism and Wicca. A common claim in Neopaganism is that "a religion without a Goddess is halfway to atheism"[citation needed] , which can partially explain the attitude which sometimes manifests as the veneration of women. Other Neopagans reject the concept of binary gender roles.

Historical paganism, particularly in the Mediterranean, tended to regard beliefs as valid as long as they conformed to the traditions and customs, or cultural patrimony of the people. As Christian eschatology became a rising force, many pagan authors wrote arguments against Christian claims and in defense of the traditional religions which give us insight into their contrasting beliefs.

[edit] Worship and ritual

Many Neopagan traditions include occult or "magical" elements in their beliefs and practices. Wicca in particular emphasizes the role of witchcraft and ritual. Other Neopagan traditions may include a belief in the supernatural, but place much less emphasis on the working of magic.

Most Neopagan religions celebrate the cycles and seasons of nature through a festival calendar that honors these changes. The timing of festivals, and the rites celebrated, may vary from climate to climate, and will also vary (sometimes widely) depending upon which particular Neopagan religion the adherent subscribes to.

[edit] Number of adherents

Adherents.com estimates that there are one million Neopagans in the world today. It is necessary to clearly define which groups are included in any estimate, using the term "Neopagan" or "Pagan". There is a distinct difference between Western Paganism and Neopaganism (which are technically or outright New Religious Movements), and the ethnic and indigenous beliefs of peoples across the world. Thus, if one used the Abrahamic definition of "pagan" to describe these peoples who do not subscribe to an Abrahamic belief, the numbers of "Pagans" and "Neopagans" would increase by millions.

Most Neopagans do not have distinct temples, usually holding rituals in private homes or sacred groves and other outdoor locations. Many adherents keep their faith secret for fear of repercussions. Many also practice their faith as "Solitaries" (short for "solitary practitioners"), and work within no fixed spiritual community.

A study by Ronald Hutton compared a number of different sources (including membership lists of major UK organizations, attendance at major events, subscriptions to magazines, etc.) and used standard models for extrapolating likely numbers. This estimate accounted for multiple membership overlaps as well as the number of adherents represented by each attendee of a Neopagan gathering. Hutton estimated that there are 250,000 Neopagan adherents in the United Kingdom, roughly equivalent to the national Hindu community (Hutton, 2001).

In the United States, the ARIS 2001 study based on a poll conducted by The Graduate Center at The City University of New York found that an estimated 140,000 people self-identified as pagans; 134,000 self-identified as Wiccans; and 33,000 self-identified as Druids. This would bring the total of groups largely accepted under the modern popular western definition of Neopagan to 307,000. Other groups measured in the report, such as Native Americans, New Agers and a significant portion of Unitarian Universalists, could be categorized under this definition, but many of these adherents would not consider themselves pagan nor would the mainstream pagan communities accept them as such.

The Covenant of the Goddess conducted a poll of U.S. and Canadian Neopagans in 1999 that estimated the population in those countries at 768,400. This would seem to support the view that there are at least one million adherents, worldwide. This poll was not scientific and represents a self selected subset of all Neopagans, but it does provide some interesting insights that confirm what many Neopagans have observed anecdotally. Some other statistics from this poll are:

  • 65% of respondents were between 26 and 39 years of age (Neopaganism appears to be particularly popular among young people)
  • 86% were registered to vote, a figure much higher than the national average
  • There were nearly three times as many women as men (71%)
  • 13% have served in the Armed Forces, and Neopagan women served at a higher rate than the general population - 32% of Neopagans who reported having been in the Armed Forces were female

[edit] Forms

The main distinction between the branches is between reconstructionism (the attempt to base a modern approach to paganism on a particular historical culture) and syncretic or eclectic approaches that may adopt various historical influences but synthesize them into a personalized religion. There are many forms of Neopaganism, most of which are identified according to the pantheon they worship or named after the founder or cultural foundations of the religion.

Various sects exist amongst different types of neopaganism, such as Hellenismos, Religio Romana in Romanic reconstructionism, Odinic Rite or Ásatrú in Germanic neopaganism, Senistrognata or Pàganachd in Celtic neopaganism or Dianic, Alexandrian or Gardnerian as various forms of Wicca, or the different subsets of cultural religions.

[edit] Reconstructionist

Main article: Polytheistic reconstructionism

Reconstructive Neopagan groups often place emphasis on historical sources, in the form of archeology, folktales, surviving texts and etymology to assist in the process of reconstructing indigenous forms of paganism though some cultures have left more traces than others.

[edit] Graeco-Roman

Main article: Hellenic polytheism

While not identical, Hellenic (Greek) religion and Roman religion would have been difficult to fully disentangle from each other, even in late antiquity, owing to the cultural exchanges and diffusion of cults and philosophies during the Roman imperial period. While some of the Hard Roman Reconstructionists, particularly those to be found in the micronation of Nova Roma would seem to view the practice with some disdain, judging from discussions on the ReligioRomana list, finding modern Pagans who combine Greek and Roman observances is not difficult.

In the United States, Hellenic Polytheism (or "Hellenic Reconstructionism") is often called Hellenismos, and Roman Paganism often is known as the Religio Romana.


[edit] Baltic

Romuva is a Lithuanian Pagan tradition, while a Neopagan Latvian tradition is called Dievturiba.

[edit] Celtic

Main article: Celtic Reconstructionist Paganism

Celtic Reconstructionist Paganism (CR) is an attempt to reconstruct the polytheistic traditions of the ancient Celts, while also making them relevant to life in the modern world. CR is inspired by, and based upon participation in, the cultures of the six Celtic Nations and other areas historically inhabited by the Celts. Sources include old manuscripts, folklore and folk practices, and the many surviving tales and songs, all of which help CRs understand the historical religions and cultures of Ireland, Scotland, Wales, Cornwall, The Isle of Man, Brittany and Gaul. Greek and Roman historical descriptions of the Celtic druids are also sometimes used as sources. While CRs may look to all of the Celtic cultures for inspiration, in practice CR is not pan-Celtic. Rather, different CR groups focus on a particular Celtic culture. Therefore, CR is more of an umbrella term than the name of one particular tradition.

CR and Neo-Druidism are separate but overlapping traditions. Some present-day Pagans on a druidic path attempt to reconstruct the beliefs and practices of the ancient druids. Other neo-druids claim to have worked directly with the spirits of places, of Pagan gods and of their own ancestors to create a new druidic tradition (see Neo-druidism, Order of Bards, Ovates and Druids, Ár nDraíocht Féin). CRs and neo-druids tend to use the word "druid" to mean very different things. In CR, the historical meaning is used: "druid" is a title only earned after many years of rigorous study and vast experience, and must be conferred and confirmed by the community the druid serves. "Neo-druid" traditions use the title much more loosely, often applying it to anyone with an interest in practicing a Celtic or Indo-European religion.

[edit] Finnic

[edit] Germanic

Main article: Germanic Neopaganism

Based on the Germanic paganism of the Norse and Anglo-Saxon cultures. Various forms and subsequent terms exist for different types of Germanic neopaganism, such as Ásatrú, Forn Sed, Heathenry, Theodism and various other terms.

The Íslenska Ásatrúarfélagið was established by Sveinbjörn Beinteinsson in the 1972 as an officially recognized Asatru group in Iceland. Forn Sed groups have The Odinic Rite was initiated by Else Christensen (as the Odinist Study Group) from 1969, under its present name founded in 1980.

[edit] Ancient Near East

Reconstructionist approach to the Religions of the Ancient Near East. Please see full article Ancient Near East Paganism

[edit] Slavic

Most Slavic neopagans follow customs of old Slavic religion and revere Slavic gods. Many use the Book of Veles as their sacred text. As a group these Slavic religions are known as Slavianstvo. Most Slavianstvo call themselves heathens rather than pagans. There is little information available in English about Slavic reconstructionists. While some Slavic neo-pagan groups are reconstructionist in a more western European sense, some [1], especially urban centered groups in Russia and Ukraine, are marked by nationalist, anti-Semitic, and anti-Christian far right political agitation.

[edit] Thraco-Dacian

Despite the fact that very little is known about the ancient religion of the Dacians, various attempts of resurrecting the ancient cults have been made in Romania by different groups. One of the most controversial groups is the so-called Gebeleizis Society, strongly nationalist and anti-Semitic, which promotes a mixture of Dacian religion with Asatru. Pavel Corut, a popular Romanian science fiction writer, can also be considered a promoter of Dacian paganism.

[edit] Shamanism

Numerous Shamanism groups flourish in North America that claim to be based on Native American spirituality. Similar groups can be found in other countries such as England, Norway and Germany. The English word shaman comes from the Evenk language, but is often conflated with Native American religious concepts. Many such groups sell lessons or "ceremonies" that are not traditional teachings, and that present an inaccurate view of Native American cultures. For this reason, they have generated ill will from many Native American elders. This ill will sometimes bleeds over into negative attitudes about NeoPaganism as a whole. [2] [3]

[edit] Syncretic and Eclectic

Image:Circle-question-red.svg The factual accuracy of this section is disputed.
Please see the relevant discussion on the talk page.

It is important to make a distinction between syncretic traditions such as Santeria, Candomble, Voudou, and the like, which tend to have clearly defined histories, rituals, and hierarchies, and the more casual approach of modern eclectic pagans. Syncretism, in its most basic form, is a religious tradition that melds together two often seemingly incompatible belief systems--such as West African animism and Roman Catholic Christianity--to create a new religious tradition. Syncretic traditions are often a result of colonialism and the oppression of native belief systems. Rather than abandon their cultural heritage, conquered or enslaved people would often put new faces on their existing gods and goddesses. This was a way of ensuring the survival of the traditions while hopefully evading persecution (persecution that could easily result in beatings and/or death). For example, in the case of the Afro-Caribbean tradition of Santeria, the Orishas of the West African Yoruba people lived on behind the masks of Catholic saints. Yemaya, Goddess of the sea, Mother of the gods, was represented by the Virgin Mary. Chango, the God of fire and thunder, was represented by Saint Barbara, to whom Spanish soldiers prayed in times of war. There are other historical syncretisms that happened in a less oppressive way, such as the Scottish traditions that are a product of centuries of combined Norse and Celtic influence.[citations needed]

Christianity has relied to a greater and lesser extent on syncretism as it spread throughout Europe, the Americas, and the rest of the world. Catholic saints often bore strong resemblances to local deities and folk heroes. The early Celtic church was an excellent example of syncretism at work, and it wasn't until the end of the 8th century A.D. that Rome had managed to get its half-pagan Irish child properly Christianized. In early Medieval times<ref>[4]</ref>, a sacred flame was tended at the monastery of St. Brigid in the same area (in Kildare or in nearby Dun Ailinne) where Pagan priestesses previously kept vigil tending a flame.<ref>A collection of Lectionary resources for the Episcopal Church.</ref> Now the Kildare Cathedral stands on those grounds.<ref>[http://kildare.ie/heritage/historic-sites/kildare-cathedral.asp</ref>

Some more orthodox pagans critique eclectic paganism as looking at the surface rather than the deeper meaning of rituals; and of treating another culture's religious traditions without the proper amount of reverence. Members of other traditions sometimes refer to eclectic pagans as "fluffy bunnies," suggesting that they are lightweights and not serious about the religion. This is also a derogatory term used for those who dabble in witchcraft or paganism but are not serious about it as a spiritual path. Others see in eclectic paganism the clear desire to make meaning out of deep, personal, often mystical experiences, and the desire to create communities of "seekers". Eclectic pagans make up a good portion of the Open Source Spirituality movement. Rather than viewing culture and tradition as static, some eclectic pagans frame their experience in the belief that human culture is constantly evolving, with elements of some cultures merging with others in a process of hybridity<ref>Kwame Anthony Appiah, 2006. Cosmopolitanism: Ethics in a world of strangers. New York: W. W. Norton and Co.</ref>

[edit] Wicca

Main article: Wicca

Wicca is a Neopagan religion found in many different countries, though most commonly in English-speaking areas. Wicca was first publicised in 1954 by a Gerald Gardner. Gardner claimed that the religion was a modern survival of an old witch cult, originating in the pre-Christian Paganism of Europe and existing in secret for centuries. Various Wiccan traditions have since evolved, or been adapted from, the form established by Gardner, which came to be called Gardnerian Wicca. These other traditions of Wicca each have specific beliefs, rituals, and practices. There is also a growing movement of Eclectic or Solitary Wiccans who adhere to the religion but do not believe a traditional initiation is necessary.

The main branches of British Traditional Wicca are Gardnerian Wicca, adhering strictly to principles as laid down by Gardner, and Alexandrian Wicca. However, other flavours of Wicca have been created ad libidem, for example Faery Wicca, Kemetic Wicca, Shakti Wicca, Judeo-Paganism or "jewitchery" etc. Dianic Wicca, or "Feminist Wicca", emphasizes the divine feminine, often creating women-only or lesbian-only groups.

[edit] Other

  • Eco-Paganism/Eco-Magic: Growing out of direct-action environmental movements which, in the UK in the 1990s, emerged as a reaction to major road building programmes, eco-paganism is a radical spirituality with a strong emphasis on the Fae imagery and intercession by the fae (fairies, pixies, gnomes, elves, etc). (Letcher, 2001).
  • Techno-Pagans: Rather than looking back to pre-Christian beliefs, Techno-Pagans are inspired by modern technology, especially computers and rave music. (For further details, and references, see Main article: Technopaganism).

Some Unitarian Universalists are Pagan. Unitarian Universalists look for spiritual inspiration in a wide variety of religious beliefs. The Covenant of Unitarian Universalist Pagans encourages their member chapters to "use practices familiar to members who attend for worship services but not to follow only one tradition of Paganism". <ref>http://www.cuups.org/content/chapters/chapter.html#how Official Website of CUUPS</ref>

[edit] Usage of the term 'Neopagan'

The term "Neopagan" is used by academics and adherents alike to denote those Pagan traditions which are largely modern in origin, or which are conceived as reconstructions of ancient practices.

Some critics claim that Neopagans cannot legitimately be considered practitioners of any "true" Pagan religion, citing that in the history of ideas it is understood that revivals are not identical to their models: e.g., Roman sculpture compared to the neoclassicism of, for example, Antonio Canova. Furthermore, a revival or reconstruction can only be as true to the original as the reference material from which it draws, and many alleged Pagan reconstructions have been shown to owe more to erroneous scholarship (such as that of Margaret Murray) or even to outright fakelore than to any historically authentic Pagan religious practice. Claims of inherited, unwritten, underground Pagan traditions, which would convey authenticity while conveniently avoiding academic scrutiny, were formerly the standard counter to such observations. These claims are viewed with increasing scepticism by Neopagans, though a small minority adhere to them.

However, no accepted definition of the term "Pagan" requires unbroken continuity with earlier forms; the term is applied according to what the adherent believes, not according to the historical provenance of those beliefs. So while Neo-Egyptian spirituality may not be the same thing as its original, both are technically Pagan (albeit very different varieties).

The usage of the term is further complicated by paganism apparently having arisen in the 18th or 19th century at the earliest as a term for a primitive state of religious belief, rather than a group of beliefs. (The term pagan is much older than paganism.) While it may therefore be possible to revive a Pagan religion or tradition, it is not possible to revive 'paganism' as such, since the term described a condition and not a set of beliefs. It is also misleading to regard individual Pagan traditions, new or old, as subsets of Paganism; it is more accurate to regard 'Paganism' as a disparaging and generalising label applied to a wide variety of belief systems.

The term Neopaganism does provide a means of distinguishing between those religions which have continued through history and those which consist of an attempt to revive or emulate earlier faiths. The argument for using it is that without the 'neo' prefix, there is a misleading implication of unbroken connection (and moral identification) with the pagan traditions of the past, since there is no difference between the label applied to a contemporary 'pagan' and an ancient one. Some modern pagans within the community desire exactly this removal of distinction, since the movement gains authority and relevance by appearing to have its roots in ancient tradition. Others within contemporary paganism consider this dishonest, and emphasise that the modern practice is connected with the old only by aspiration.

Difficulties have arisen following attempts to revive supposed elements of ancient Paganism whose existence has later proven to be tenuous. A case in point is Eostre, a goddess sufficiently popular to have had the modern Wiccan Spring Equinox festival of Ostara named after her in the USA and presented as the historical forerunner of Easter. However, according to recent statements from academic sources, Eostre never existed as a figure of worship; she was invented by the 8th century scribe Bede [5], who misunderstood second-hand reports.

Although some Neopagans dismiss such academic conclusions as irrelevant to their beliefs, the majority accept them. They are not disheartened when the evidence suggests that their beliefs have been founded on a misreading of history or upon fakelore, and instead contend that any goddess who is worshipped is 'real', whether she previously existed in history or not [6].

[edit] See also

[edit] Complementary and contrasting theological concepts

[edit] References

<references/>

[edit] Additional Sources

  • Bonewits, Isaac (2003). Rites of Worship: A Neopagan Approach. ISBN 1-59405-501-7.
  • Ronald, Hutton (2001). The Triumph of the Moon: A History of Modern Pagan Witchcraft. ISBN 0-19-285449-6.
  • Strmiska, Michael F. (2005). Modern Paganism in World Cultures: Comparative Perspectives. Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO.
  • Seznec, Jean (1953). The Survival of the Pagan Gods: The Mythological Tradition and Its Place in Renaissance Humanism and Art. ISBN 0-691-02988-1.

[edit] External links

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