Nuclear energy policy

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Nuclear energy policy is national and international policy concerning some or all aspects of nuclear energy, such as mining, electricity generation by nuclear power, enrichment and storage of spent nuclear fuel, and (where permitted) nuclear fuel reprocessing.

Nuclear energy policy can mean the regulation of energy use and standards relating to the nuclear fuel cycle. Other measures include efficiency standards, safety regulations, emission standards, fiscal policies, and legislation on energy trading, transport of nuclear waste and contaminated materials, and their storage. Governments might subsidize nuclear energy and arrange international treaties and trade agreements about the import and export of nuclear technology, electricity, nuclear waste, and uranium.

An issue that has become prominent in the media is nuclear proliferation. Nuclear energy policy influences - and is influenced by - foreign relations, including military presence, embargoes and/or domination.

[edit] International use of nuclear energy

(see also energy development, future energy development and renewable energy development)

Installed nuclear capacity rose relatively quickly since the 1950s. Since the late 1980s capacity has risen much more slowly, reaching 366 GW in 2005, primarily due to Chinese expansion of nuclear power. Between around 1970 and 1990, more than 50 GW of capacity was under construction (peaking at over 150 GW in the late 70s and early 80s). More than two-thirds of all nuclear plants ordered after January 1970 were eventually cancelled.^[1] In 1983 an unexpected fall in fossil fuel prices stopped most new construction of nuclear power plants. In the 1980s (US) and 1990s (Europe), electricity liberalization also played a part in increasing the financial risks of investing in nuclear power. Electricity generated from nuclear power plants greatly decreases greenhouse gases compared to coal fired electricity generation and its supporters claim it to be one of the most inexpensive and environmentally friendly means of electrical power generation.

Nuclear energy use has been growing steadily through the 1970s and the early 1980s. The growth slowed in the 1980s because of environmentalist opposition, high interest rates, and energy conservation prompted by the oil shock in 1973, and the energy crisis in 1979 and the accidents at Three Mile Island in 1979 and Chernobyl [2]. Several countries, especially European countries have abandoned the use of nuclear energy since then. [3]

In 2000, there were 438 commercial nuclear generating units throughout the world, with a total capacity of about 351 gigawatts.

As of 1999, the countries that rely most on nuclear energy are France (with 75 % of its electricity generated by nuclear power stations), Lithuania (73 %), Belgium (58 %), Bulgaria, Slovakia and Sweden (47 %), Ukraine (44 %) and South Korea (43 %). The largest producer of nuclear capacity was the USA with 28 % of worldwide capacity, followed by France (18 %) and Japan (12 %). [4]

Argentina, Brazil, Canada, China, Finland, India, Iran, Lithuania, North Korea, Russia, Pakistan, Japan, South Korea, Taiwan, Ukraine, and the U.S. are currently planning or building new nuclear reactors or reopening old ones. Bulgaria, Czech Republic, Egypt, France, Indonesia, Israel, Romania, Slovakia, South Africa, Turkey, and Vietnam are considering doing this. Armenia, Belgium, Germany, Hungary, Mexico, Netherlands, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, and United Kingdom have nuclear reactors but currently no advanced proposals for expansion. [5] [6][7]. Sweden and Germany have decided on a nuclear power phase-out, but depending on the September 2005 elections Germany may reverse its decision.

Australia, Austria, Denmark, Greece, Ireland and Norway have no nuclear plants and have restricted new plant constructions (see nuclear power phase-out). Poland stopped the construction of a plant. Belgium, Germany, Netherlands, Spain and Sweden decided not to build new plants or intend to phase out nuclear power, although still mostly relying on nuclear energy.

The future energy development of nuclear energy has been interpreted differently. It has been argued separately for a decline [8][9] or a revival of worldwide nuclear energy use [10]. At the Earth Summit 2002 organized by the United Nations Environment Programme the countries disagreed on the sustainability of nuclear energy [11].

According to IAEA, nuclear power is projected to increase slightly to 17% share of world electricity production in 2020. This would be accomplished by instaling 60 new plants in next 15 years.^[12][13] (see future energy development)

The Hubbert peak of global oil production predicts widespread disruptions to conventional energy supplies of oil and natural gas. Some academic and business research into hydrocarbon deposits has concluded that the continued usage of this form of energy source will inevitably create widespread reductions in its supply during the 2010s, resulting in a sudden need to switch to alternative energy sources such as nuclear energy and "green" sources such as solar and wind power. However, similar predictions about the "end of the age of oil" have been made almost since oil first became a major commodity, and so far no such predictions have borne out, although Marion King Hubbert successfully predicted the peak in U.S. oil production to within a few years.

[edit] Africa

[edit] Asia

China [14] and India [15] are currently building new nuclear power plants. [16]

[edit] Oceania

[edit] Australia

Australia has up to 40% of the world's uranium deposits and is the world's second largest producer of uranium after Canada. While there are no specific plans for domestic nuclear plants, the conservative-controlled federal government is encouraging the expansion of the uranium mining industry. In 2005, the Australian government threatened to use its constitutional powers to take control of the approval process for new mines from the anti-nuclear Northern Territory government, and is negotiating with China to weaken safeguard terms so as to allow uranium exports to that country. Labor-controlled state governments are blocking the development of new mines in their jurisdictions under the ALP's "No New Mines policy."

While majority political opinion is still opposed to domestic nuclear power on both environmental and economic grounds (Australia has very extensive, low-cost coal reserves and substantial natural gas), a number of prominent politicians have begun to advocate for its serious consideration as a means to affordably reduce greenhouse emissions and perhaps allow for large-scale de-salination plants. Notable nuclear advocates include the recently-retired Australian Labor Party Premier of New South Wales, Bob Carr, and federal Defence Minister, Brendan Nelson. Renewed discussion on the topic has not led to policy changes necessary to allow the use of nuclear power in Australia to date, however an inquiry run by the department of the Prime Minister in Cabinet, UMPNER [17] - the Uranium Mining, Processing and Nuclear Energy Review - is expected to provide fertile ground for the pro-nuclear federal liberals to move in that direction. [18][19]

[edit] Europe

[edit] Belgium

In Belgium the first pressurized water reactor was commissioned in 1962 (in Mol). It was followed by seven reactors in Doel and Tihange from 1975 to 1985. [20]

Belgium's nuclear power phase-out legislation was agreed in July 1999 by the Flemish Liberals and Democrats-led Government including the Belgian Greens party, Groen!. The phase-out law calls for each of Belgium's seven reactors to close after 40 years of operation with no new reactors built subsequently. There was no indication the current Government would revoke the phase-out law in early 2005[21] [22], pdf) However this policy has changed, due to pragmatic economical reasons, see Nuclear power phase-out.

In July 2005, the National Planning Bureau has published a new report. It states that Oil and other fossil fuels generate 90 % of Belgian energy use, while nuclear power accounts for 9 % and renewable energy for 1 %. It is projected that within 25 years renewable energy will increase to at most 5 % of the energy use, because of high costs. The plan of the Government arranged for all nuclear power stations to shut down until 2025. The report raises concerns about greenhouse gases and sustainability. [23]

[edit] Finland

Main article: Nuclear power in Finland

Finland's nuclear power program has four nuclear reactors, which provides 27% of Finland's electricity. Two VVER-440 pressurized water reactors built by Soviet Atomenergoeksport and commissioned in 1977 and 1980, locate in Loviisa. They are operated by Fortum Oyj. Two boiling water reactors built by Swedish Asea-Atom (nowadays ABB) and commissioned n 1978 and 1980, locate in Olkiluoto plant in Eurajoki, near Rauma. They are owned and operated by Teollisuuden Voima, a subsidiary of Pohjolan Voima Oy.

In 2002, the cabinet's decision to allow the construction of fifth reactor (third in Olkiluoto) was accepted in the parliament. Economic, energy security and environmental grounds were given as reasons for the decision. The reactor will be the new European Pressurized Reactor, which is scheduled to go on line in 2009. The discussions concerning construction of the sixth reactor have started, however the process is at the very early stage.

[edit] France

After the oil crisis of the early 1970s, the French government decided in 1974 to move towards self-sufficiency in electricity production, primarily through the construction of nuclear power stations. France today produces around 75% of its electricity through nuclear power. [24] France moreover produces an electricity surplus, which has meant that it exports nuclear-produced energy, particularly to ostensibly anti-nuclear Germany. Main article: Nuclear power in France.

[edit] Germany

In 2000, the German government enacted a law to phase out the use of nuclear energy by 2020. In 1999, electricity production in Germany was made up by coal 47 %, nuclear power 30 %, natural gas 14 %, renewable sources (including hydro) 6 %, and oil 2 % [25]. As for energy consumption, oil accounted for 41 % of the total. In 1998, the use of renewables in Germany reached 284 PJ of primary energy demand, which corresponds to 5 % of the total electricity demand. By 2010 the German Government wants to reach ten percent. [26]

The CDU won the German federal election, 2005 with candidate Angela Merkel [27]. She has announced to re-negotiate with energy companies the time limit for a shut down of nuclear power stations [28].

[edit] Sweden

Faced with the 1973 oil crisis, energy politics in Sweden were determined to become less dependent on the import of petroleum. Since then, energy has been generated mostly from hydropower and nuclear power. In 1980, the Swedish Government decided after a referendum that no further nuclear power plants should be built and that a nuclear power phase-out should be completed by 2010. As of 2005, the use of renewables amounted to 26 % of the energy supply in Sweden, most important being hydropower and biomass. In 1998, electricity from hydropower accounted for 76 TWh and 48 % of the country's production of electricity. At the same time, the use of biofuels, peat etc. produced 92TWh. ([29] , pdf)

In 1998, the government decided to build no further hydropower plants in order to protect national water resources. In spite of extensive efforts to create alternatives for nuclear power, e.g. fossil fuels, it is not likely that Sweden can complete the nuclear power phase-out by 2010. It has been estimated that nuclear power plants in operation will stay in operation until 2045.

The new Swedish government is proposing to end the nuclear phase-out, while still maintaining a moratorium on new construction, at least until 2010.

Main article: Nuclear power in Sweden.

[edit] Switzerland

In Switzerland there were many referenda on the topic of nuclear energy. In 1990, the initiative "stop the construction of nuclear power stations," which was asking about a ten-year moratorium on the construction of new nuclear power plants, was passed. In 2003 "Moratorium Plus," for an extension of the earlier decided moratorium, was rejected. [30]

As of 2005, Switzerland has four nuclear reactors at Beznau (Beznau 1), Gösgen, Leibstadt, and Mühleberg and around 40 % of its electricity is generated by nuclear power. Another 60 % come from hydroelectricity. [31].

[edit] Spain

In Spain a moratorium has been enacted by the socialist government in 1983 ([32], [33]).

[edit] Ireland

In Ireland, a 1968 plan for a nuclear power plant was dropped after strong opposition from environmental groups, and Ireland has remained nuclear power free since.

[edit] Italy

Italy held a referendum the year after the 1986 Chernobyl accident, deciding to shut down Italy's four nuclear power plants. The last plant was shut down in 1990 [34]. Premier Silvio Berlusconi reopened the nuclear power debate in 2005, noting Italy imports around 85% of its total energy, above the European average.[35][36].

[edit] The Netherlands

In the Netherlands, in 1994, the Dutch parliament voted to phase out after a discussion of nuclear waste management. The power station at Dodewaard was shut down in 1997. In 1997 the government decided to end Borssele's operating license, at the end of 2003. In 2003 the shut down was postponed by a conservative government to 2013 [37] [38]. In 2005 the decision was reversed and research ín expending nuclear power has been initiated. Reversal was preceded by the publication of the Christian Democratic Alliance's report on sustainable energy [39]. Other parties then conceded.

[edit] Austria

On July 9, 1997, the Austrian Parliament voted unanimously to maintain the country's anti-nuclear policy. [40].

[edit] United Kingdom

After one commission concluded in 2003 that nuclear power's "current economics make it an unattractive option for new, carbon-free generating capacity", the Government launched a fresh energy review in 2006. It is thought by critics that this is hoped to provide the justification to build a new generation of nuclear reactors. Main article: Nuclear power in the United Kingdom.

[edit] North America

[edit] USA

In 2001, the U.S.'s nuclear share of electricity generation was 19 %. In 2004, there were 104 (69 pressurized water reactors, 35 boiling water reactors) commercial nuclear generating units licensed to operate in the United States, producing a total of 97,400 megawatts (electric), which is approximately 20 % of the nation's total electric energy consumption (see list). The United States is the world's largest supplier of commercial nuclear power. Future development of nuclear power in the U.S. was enabled by the Energy Policy Act of 2005. ([41], pdf)

There are plans for new nuclear plants. The Nuclear Power 2010 Program coordinates efforts for building new nuclear power plants. [42] and the the Energy Policy Act makes great provisions for nuclear industries. [43][44] On September 22, 2005 it was announced that two sites in the U.S. had been selected to receive new power reactors (exclusive of the new power reactor scheduled for INL) - see Nuclear Power 2010 Program.

[edit] South America

[edit] Nuclear power phase-out

A Nuclear power phase-out was introduced in Sweden (1980), in Italy (1987), in Belgium (1999), and in Germany (2000) and has been discussed in several other European countries. Austria, the Netherlands, Poland, and Spain have enacted laws not to build new nuclear power stations.

One idea behind a nuclear phase-out is to force a shift to renewable energy, because of environmental concerns with electricity generation, social and/or political hazards of nuclear energy and of fossil fuels.

[edit] Discussion of nuclear energy

(see: Nuclear power and Pro's and Con's of Nuclear Energy)

[edit] See also

• Nuclear power - has an extensive discussion of risks and costs.
• Future energy development - further discussion.
• Renewable energy development - on energy alternatives.
• Nuclear power phase-out - has also a discussion of nuclear energy
• Nuclear power by country
• Nuclear power controversy
• List of countries with nuclear weapons
• List of energy topics - for many other related articles
• Energy policy - for a more general discussion
• Energy economics
• Eesi - Energy & Environmental Security Initiative

[edit] References

• An Essential Programme to Underpin Government Policy on Nuclear Power. By the "Nuclear Task Force." July 2003 (pdf)
• [45] About the nuclear power phase-out in Sweden German)

[edit] Further reading

• Robert J. Duffy. Nuclear Politics in America: A History and Theory of Government Regulation (Studies in Government and Public Policy). Paperback. 1997. ISBN 0-7006-0853-2.

[edit] External links

• Nuclear Power Plants all over the World
• WISE/NIRS Nuclear Monitor: Status of nuclear in EU member states
• Research paper detailing perspectives for energy politics in the UK (pdf)
• Greenpeace: Referenda and nuclear power plants
• Survey of Energy Resources: Nuclear
• Energy Research and Development - Global trends in policy and investment
• How can new nuclear power plants be financed?, Nuclear Engineering International, 1 September 2005
• Uranium Information Center: Outline history of nuclear energyes:Política sobre Energía Nuclear

fr:Débat sur l'énergie nucléaire