Ohlone

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<th style="background-color:#fee8ab;">Related ethnic groups</th>
<td style="background-color:#fff6d9;">Subgroups: 

The Ohlone people, also known as the Costanoan and as the Muwekma, are the indigenous people of Northern California who have lived since 500 AD in the regions surrounding the San Francisco Bay and spanning south into the Salinas Valley. They spoke diverse dialects of the Penutian (Utian) language and lived in over 50 distinct villages and groups. Before Spanish colonization, they did not view themselves as one unified group of people. The Ohlone once lived by hunting, fishing and gathering and their world view included Shamanism. From 1769 to 1833, Spanish policies, including the California Mission system, brought tremendous upheaval, hardship and decimation to the Ohlone people.

The Ohlone living today include the Muwekma Ohlone Tribe of the San Francisco Bay Area, as well as Rumsen and Mutsun Tribes, direct descendants of the original people, currently petitioning for tribal federal recognition.

[edit] Culture

The Ohlone inhabited fixed village locations, moving temporarily to gather seasonal foodstuffs like acorns and berries. The Ohlone people lived in Northern California from the northern tip of the San Francisco Peninsula in the north down to Big Sur in the south, and from the Pacific Ocean in the west to the Mount Diablo mountain range in the east.<ref> Kroeber, 1925, page 462.</ref> Their vast region included the San Francisco Peninsula, Santa Clara Valley, Santa Cruz Mountains, Monterey Bay area, as well as present-day Alameda County, Contra Costa County and Salinas Valley. Prior to Spanish contact, the Ohlone formed a complex association of approximately 50 different "nations or tribes" with about 50 to 500 members each, with an average of 200.<ref>Teixeira, 1997, pg. 1, cites Levy (1978).</ref> Over 50 specific Ohlone tribes and villages have been recorded.<ref>Milliken, 1995, Appendix 1, "Encyclopedia of Tribal Groups", pages 231-261.</ref> The Ohlone villages interacted through trade, intermarriage and ceremonial events, as well as some internecine conflict.<ref>Milliken, 1995, page 23 describes intermarriages and internecine conflict; page 24 describes tribal trade.</ref> Cultural arts included basket-weaving skills, seasonal ceremonial dancing events, female tattoos and other body ornamentation.<ref>Teixeira, page 2 mentions basket-weaving and other body ornamentation, page 3 mentions trading; Milliken, 1995, page 18 mentions basketry, female tattoos, ear and nose piercings, and other ornamentation; Milliken, 1995, page 24 mentions seasonal ceremonial dancing festivals.</ref>

The Ohlones subsisted mainly as hunter-gatherers, and in some ways harvesters.<ref>Brown 1973 pg. 3, 4, 25; Stanger, 1969 pg.94; Bean and Lawton, 1973 pg.11, 30, 39. (Lewis)</ref> "A rough husbandry of the land was practiced, mainly by annually setting of fires to burn-off the old growth in order to get a better yield of seeds – or so the Indians told early explorers in San Mateo County."<ref>Brown 1973, page 4.</ref> Their staple diet consisted of crushed acorns, grass seeds and berries, while other vegetation, hunted and trapped game, fish and seafood (including mussels and abalone from the San Francisco Bay and Pacific Ocean), were also important to their diet<ref name="Margolin">Margolin, 1978. pg. 36 for seafood, pg. 50 for nuts and seeds, Milliken, 1995, page 18 for trapped small animals; Bean, 1994, page 15-16 per Crespi's journal, geese were stuffed and dried "to use as decoys in hunting others."</ref>. These food sources were abundant and maintained by careful work (and spiritual respect<ref name="Teixeira-p2">Teixeira, 1997, page 2.</ref>), and through some active management of all the natural resources at hand.<ref name="Teixeira-p2" />

Animals in their mild climate included the grizzly bear, elk (cervus elaphus), antelope and deer. The streams held salmon, perch and stickleback. Birds included plentiful ducks, geese, great horned owls, red-shafted flickers, downy woodpeckers, goldfinches, and yellow-billed magpies . Along the ocean shore and bays, there lived otters, whales, and at one time thousands of sea lions.<ref>Teixeira, 1997, page 2 lists all the animals above, except for ducks and geese; Bean, 1994, page 15-16, quoting Crespi's journal refer to hunting geese (Bolton (1927:291); Bean, 1994, pages 106, 119: the Chocheño traditional narratives refer to ducks.</ref> In fact, there were so many sea lions that it "looked like a pavement" to the incoming Spanish.<ref>Teixeira, 1997, page 2, lists the quote from Crespi(1927:4).</ref>

In general, along the bayshore and valleys, the natives constructed dome-shaped houses of woven or bundled mats of tule rushes, 6 to 20 feet in diameter. In hills and where Redwood trees were accessible, they built conical houses made from Redwood bark attached to a frame of wood. <ref name="Teixeira-p2" /><ref>Kroeber, 1925, page 468: mentions Redwood houses were remembered in Monterey.</ref> One of the main village buildings, the sweat lodge was dug into the ground, its walls made of earth and roof of earth and brush.<ref name="Teixeira-p2" /> They built boats of tule to navigate on the bays propelled by double-bladed paddles.<ref>Kroeber, 1925, page 468.</ref>

Generally, men did not wear clothing in warm weather. In cold weather, they might don animal skin capes or feather capes.<ref name="Teixeira-p2" /> Women commonly wore deerskin aprons, tule rush skirts or shredded bark skirts.<ref name="Teixeira-p2" /> On cool days, they also wore animal skin capes. Both wore ornamentation of necklaces, shell beads and abalone pendants, and bone wood earrings with shells and beads. The ornamentation often indicated status within their community.<ref name="Teixeira-p2" />

[edit] Religion

The pre-contact Ohlone world view included Shamanism. They beleived that spiritual doctors could heal and prevent illness, and had a "probable belief in bear shamans."<ref>Kroeber, Handbook of Indians of California, 1925, page 472.</ref> Otherwise, their spiritual beliefs were not recorded in detail. In addition, some of the villages probably learned and practiced Kuksu, a form of shamanism shared by many tribes of Central and Northern California (although there is some question if the Ohlone people learned Kuksu from other tribes while at the missions.<ref>Kroeber, 1925, page 470. </ref> Kuksu included elaborate acting and dancing ceremonies in traditional costume, an annual mourning ceremony, puberty rites of passage, shamanic intervention with the spirit world and an all-male society that met in subterranean dance rooms.<ref name="Kroeber07">Kroeber, The Religion of the Indians of California, 1907, Vol. 4 #6, sections titled "Shamanism", "Public Ceremonies", "Ceremonial Structures and Paraphernalia", and "Mythology and Beliefs".</ref><ref>The Kuksu Cult paraphrased from Kroeber.</ref> Kuksu was shared with other indigenous ethnic groups of Central California, such as their neighbors the Miwok and Esselen, also Maidu, Pomo, and northernmost Yokuts. However Kroeber observed less "specialized cosmogony" in the Ohlone, which he termed one of the "southern Kuksu-dancing groups", in comparison to the Maidu and groups in the Sacramento Valley.<ref>Kroeber, Handbook of Indians of California, 1925, page 445. "It is true the Costanoan and Salinan stocks, who participate in the Kuksu cult and live in the same transverse belt of California as the Miwok, seem also to lean in their mythology toward the Yokuts more than to the Sacramento Valley tribes. A less specialized type of cosmogony is therefore indicated for the southern Kuksu-dancing groups. [1. If, as seems probable, the southerly Kuksu tribes (the Miwok, Costanoans, Esselen, and northernmost Yokuts) had no real society in connection with their Kuksu ceremonies, the distinctness of their mythology appears less surprising.]"</ref>

The natives who joined the Spanish Missions assumed the religion of Catholicism (beginning in 1777, see the Mission Era).<ref>Milliken, 1995, page 67, begins to discuss first baptisms and conversions to Catholicism in 1777; Bean, 1994 page 279-281 discusses their conversions to Catholicism as incomplete and external.</ref>

[edit] Traditional narratives

Main article: Ohlone traditional narratives

In their traditional mythology, legends, tales, and histories, the Ohlone participated in the general cultural pattern of Central and Northern California.<ref name="Kroeber07" />

Ohlone folklore and legend centered around the Californian culture heroes of the Coyote trickster spirit, as well as Eagle and Hummingbird (and in the Chocheño region, a falcon-like being named Kaknu<ref>Bean, 1994, page 106</ref>). Coyote spirit was clever, wily, lustful, greedy, and irresponsible. He often competed with Hummingbird, who despite his small size regularly got the better of him.<ref>Kroeber, 1925, pages 472-473.</ref>

[edit] Mythology

Main article: Ohlone mythology

Ohlone mythology creation stories mention the world was covered entirely in water, apart from a single peak Pico Blanco near Big Sur (or Mount Diablo in the northern Ohlone's version) on which Coyote, Hummingbird, and Eagle stood. People were the descendants of the Coyote.<ref>Kroeber, 1907. Indian Myths of South Central California, pages 199-202, Costanoan Rumsien myths; also Kroeber, 1925, pages 472-473.</ref>

[edit] History

Careful study of artifacts found in central California mounds has resulted in the discovery of three distinguishable epochs or cultural "horizons" in their history.

In terms of our time-counting system, the first or "Early Horizon" extends from about 4000 BC to 1000 BC in the Bay Area and to about 2000 BC in the Central Valley. The second or Middle Horizon was from these dates to 700 AD, while the third or Late Horizon was from 700 AD to the coming of the Spaniards in the 1770s.</blockquote></ref>

[edit] The Mission Era (1769 – 1833)

Image:CHS.J2289.jpg

The Ohlone people lived a relatively constant life until 1769, when the first Spanish soldiers and missionaries arrived from Southern California with the double-purpose of Christianizing the Native Americans by building a series of missions and of facilitating Spanish colonization.<ref>Teixeira, 1997, page 3.</ref><ref>One Spanish to discover California and meet Native Americans was Sebastian Vizcaíno who reached Monterey in December 1602. For our purpose, this had no definable impact on the Ohlone.(See Teixeira, 1997, page 15)</ref> Spain claimed present-day California as its colony, and began to build a network of religious outposts, arriving in Ohlone territory in 1769. The Franciscan mission chain was founded under the leadership and vision of Father Junípero Serra and the military control was led by Gaspar de Portolà.

This Spanish encroachment into the region disrupted and undermined the Ohlone social structures and way of life. Under Father Serra's leadership, the Spanish Franciscans erected seven missions inside the Ohlone region, and brought most of the Ohlone into these missions to live and work. In date order, the missions erected within the Ohlone region were: Mission San Carlos Borroméo de Carmelo (founded in 1770), Mission San Francisco de Asís (founded in 1776), Mission Santa Clara de Asís (founded in 1777), Mission Santa Cruz (founded in 1791), Mission Nuestra Señora de la Soledad (founded in 1791), Mission San José (founded in 1797), and Mission San Juan Bautista (founded in 1797).<ref>Teixeira, 1997, page 3. Mission name list only; dates from Wikipedia related article.</ref> The Indians that went to live at the missions were called Mission Indians, and also neophytes<ref>The term "neophyte" in historical accounts: MIlliken page 70 mentions "first neophyte marriages" in 1778; Bean, 1994, page 284 quotes McCarthy (1958:141); Milliken 1995, page 69 discusses neophytes.</ref>. They were blended with other Indian ethnicities such as the Coast Miwok transported from the North Bay into the San Francisco and San Jose missions.<ref>Cook, 1976, "Population" page 27-28 for Mission of San Francisco; Milliken, 1995, Appendix I, "Encyclopedia of Tribal Groups", pages 231-261, for detailed tribal migration records. For example page 251: Coast Miwok tribe named "Petaluma" sent 72 people to live at Mission San Jose. </ref>

Spanish military presence was established at two Presidios, the Presidio of Monterey, and the Presidio of San Francisco, and mission outposts, such as San Pedro y San Pablo Asistencia founded in 1786. The Spanish soldiers traditionally escorted the Franciscans on missionary outreach daytrips but declined to camp overnight. So for the first 20 years the missions accepted a few converts at a time, slowly gaining a population. Then in November, 1794 through May, 1795 a large wave of Indians were baptized and moved into the Missions of Santa Clara and San Francisco, including 360 people to Mission Santa Clara, and the entire Huichun village populations of the East Bay to Mission San Francisco. This migration was followed almost immediately by the worst epidemic to date in March 1795 and food shortages, that resulted in alarmingly high death and runaway statistics all in the same year. When fleeing the missions, the Franciscans sent neophytes first and (as a last resort) soldiers to go round up the runaway "Christians" from their relatives, and bring them back to the missions<ref>Milliken, 1995, page 97 quotes Fages, 1971: how fathers would send Indians in preference to soldiers after runaways</ref>. Thus illness spread inside and outside of the mission.<ref>Milliken, 1995, pages 129-134 ("Mass Migration in Winter of 1794-95").</ref>

For 60 years in the missions, the Ohlone population suffered greatly due to cultural shock and disease, vulnerable to foreign diseases to which they had little resistance, in the restricted and crowded living conditions inside the mission compounds. Almost all moved to the missions. The practice of "monjeria", which was "isolating unmarried women in a separate locked room at night"<ref>Milliken, 1995, page 89.</ref> was strictly enforced. In the poor and crowded conditions the women picked up illnesses, their pregnancies ended in many stillborns and infant deaths. Syphilis has been identified and it causes women who have it to miscarry fifty percent of the time, and high infant mortality rates. One of the "worst epidemic(s) of the Spanish Era in California" was known to be the measles epidemic of 1806: "One quarter of the mission Indian population of the San Francisco Bay Area died of the measles or related complications between March and May of 1806."<ref>Milliken, 1995, pages 172–173 (syphilis), page 193 (measles and quotes).</ref>

[edit] Secularization and Survival

In 1834, the Mexican Government ordered all Californian missions to be secularized and turn their lands over to the government. Mission leaders attempted to protect and give some of the lands back to the Indians, but most lands were turned into Mexican-owned rancherias. The Indians became the laborers and vaqueros (cowboys) of Mexican-owned rancherias. They eventually regathered in multi-ethnic rancherias, along with other Mission Indians such as the Coast Miwok, and northwest Yokuts and Patwin. Many of the Mission Indians went to work at Alisal Rancheria in Pleasanton, and El Molino in Niles. Communities also formed in Sunol, Monterey and San Juan Bautista. In the 1840's a wave of U.S. settlers encroached into the area and California became annexed to the United States. The new settlers brought in new diseases to the Indians. <ref>Teixeira, 1997, pages 3-4, "Historical Overview."</ref>

The Ohlone lost the vast majority of their population between 1780 and 1850, due to an abysmal birth rate, high infant mortality rate, diseases and social upheaval associated with European immigration into California. By all estimates, the Ohlone were decimated to less than ten percent of their original pre-mission era population. By 1852 the Ohlone population had diminished down to about 864-1000<ref>Cook, 1943/1976 Conflict, pages 183, 236-245.</ref> and continued to decline. By the early 1880s, the northern Ohlone were virtually extinct and the southern Ohlone people severely impacted and largely displaced from their communal land grant in the Carmel Valley. To call attention to the plight of the California Indians, Indian Agent, reformer, and popular novelist Helen Hunt Jackson published accounts of her travels among the Mission Indians of California in 1883.<ref>Jackson, Helen Hunt.Report on the Condition and Needs of the Mission Indians of California. Washington, Dc: Govt. Print. Office, 1883. LCC 02021288</ref>

Considered the last fluent speaker of an Ohlone language, Rumsien-speaker Isabel Meadows, died in 1939. Some of the people are attempting to revive Rumsen, Mutsun, and Chocheño.<ref>See the "External Links" section, "Revival" external links.</ref>

[edit] Divisions

There were eight major regional, linguistic divisions or subgroups of the Ohlone, from north to south:<ref>Teixeira, 1997, pages 37-38, "Linguistics" (per Levy 1978:485); and Cartier, 1991.</ref>

• Karkin (also called Carquin) - The Karkin resided on the south side of the Carquinez Strait. The name of the Carquinez Strait derives from their name. Karkin was a dialect quite divergent from the rest of the family.<ref>Beeler, 1961</ref>
• Chocheño (also called Chochenyo, Chocenyo) - The Chocheño speaking tribal groups resided in the East Bay, primarily in the western portion of what is now Alameda County and Contra Costa County.
• Ramaytush (also called San Francisco) - The Ramaytush resided between San Francisco Bay and the Pacific in the area which is now San Francisco and San Mateo County. The Yelamu grouping of the Ramaytush included the villages surrounding Mission Doloras, Sitlintac and Chutchui on Mission Creek, Amuctac and Tubsinte in Visitation Valley, Petlenuc from near the Presidio. And, to the southwest, the villages of Timigtac on Calera Creek and Pruristac on San Pedro Creek in modern day Pacifica.
• Tamyen (also called Tamien, Santa Clara) - The Tamyen resided on Coyote Creek and Calaveras Creek, and the language spoken in the Santa Clara Valley. (Linguistically, Chochenyo, Tamyen and Ramaytush were very close, perhaps to the point of being dialects of a single language.<ref>See Jack Forbes Native Americans of California and Nevada 1968, page 184; also Milliken recent (2006) ethnohistory for the GGNRA</ref> The Tamyen village was near the original site of the first Mission Santa Clara located on the Guadalupe River.<ref>Father Pena mentions in a letter to Juniper Serra that the area around the mission was called Thamien by the natives (see Hylkema 1995 Archaeological Investigations at the Third Location of Mission Santa Clara De Assis: The Murguia Mission 1781-1818 (CA-SCL-30/H) Caltrans Report, page 20.</ref>
• Awaswas (also called Santa Cruz) - The Awaswas resided on the Santa Cruz coast between Pescadero and the Pajaro Rivers. (There is evidence that this grouping was more geographic than linguistic, and that the records of the 'Santa Cruz Costanoan' language in fact represent several diverse dialects.^{[citation needed]})
• Mutsun (also called Mutsen, San Juan Bautista) - The Mutsun resided along San Benito River and San Felipe Creek.
• Rumsen (also called Rumsien) - The Rumsen resided from the Pajaro River to Point Sur, and the lower courses of the Pajaro, as well as the Salinas and Carmel Rivers (San Carlos, Carmel, and Monterey).
• Chalon (also called Soledad) - The Chalon resided on the middle course of the Salinas River.

Note that "Language group designations are spelled as commonly found in English language publications... however many tribal, village and personal names which are not commonly found in literature present a problem. They were written by Spanish settlers who were trying to capture the sounds of languages foreign to them."<ref> Milliken, 1995, page xiv.</ref>

[edit] Villages and tribes

Main article: List of Ohlone villages

Within the eight regions listed above, there were over 50 tribes and villages who spoke the Ohlone-Costanoan languages in 1769, before being absorbed into the Spanish Missions by 1800.<ref>Milliken, 1995, Appendix 1, "Encyclopedia of Tribal Groups", pages 231-261.</ref>

[edit] Present day

The Mutsun (of Hollister and Watsonville) and the Muwekma Ohlone Tribe (of the San Francisco Bay Area) are among the surviving groups of Ohlone today petitioning for tribal recognition. The Esselen Nation also describes itself as Ohlone/Costanoan, although they historically spoke both the southern Costanoan (Rumsen) and an entirely different Hokan language Esselen.

[edit] Federal Recognition

Ohlone tribes with petitions for Federal Recognition pending with the Bureau of Indian Affairs are:<ref>500 Nations Web Site - Petitions for Federal Recognition</ref><ref name="FourD">Costanoans by Four Directions Institute; Sunderland, Larry. Native American Historical Data Base (NAHDB)</ref>

• Muwekma Ohlone Tribe, San Francisco Bay Area:

397 enrolled members in year 2000, are comprised of "all of the known surviving Native American lineages aboriginal to the San Francisco Bay region who trace their ancestry through the Missions Dolores, Santa Clara and San Jose" and who descend from members of the historic Federally Recognized Verona Band of Alameda County. On September 21, 2006, they received a favorable opinion from the U.S. District in Washington, D.C. of their court case to expedite the reaffirmation of the tribe as a Federally Recognized tribe. <ref name="Muwekma">Muwekma Ohlone Indian Tribal Web site, Informational Background.</ref>

• Amah-Mutsun Band of Ohlone/Costanoan Indians, Woodside:

Over 500 enrolled members are comprised of "various surviving lineages who spoke the Hoomontwash or Mutsun Ohlone language." The majority descend from the native people baptized at Mission San Juan Bautista.<ref>Amah-Mutsun Tribe Website; Leventhal and all, 1993.</ref>

• Ohlone/Costanoan Esselen Nation, Monterey and San Benito Counties:

500 enrolled members, approximately: Their tribal council claims enrolled membership is currently at approximately 500 people from thirteen core lineages that trace direct descendancy to the Missions San Carlos and Soledad. The tribe was formerly federally recognized as the "Monterey Band of Monterey County" (1906-1908). Approximately 60% now reside in Monterey and San Benito Counties.<ref>Ohlone/Costanoan Esselen Nation Today. File retrieved November 30, 2006.</ref>

• Costanoan Band of Carmel Mission Indians, Monrovia.

• Costanoan Ohlone Rumsen-Mutsen Tribe, Watsonville.

• Costanoan-Rumsen Carmel Tribe, Chino.

• Indian Canyon Band of Costanoan, Mutsun Indians, near Hollister.

[edit] Population

Image:OhlonePopulation5.png

The pre-contact Ohlone's population in 1770 is currently estimated between 10,000 and 20,000, although analysts differ widely on the population of Native California: Modern researchers think that American anthropologist Alfred L. Kroeber's projection of 7000 Ohlone "Costanoans" was much too low.<ref>Kroeber, 1925, page 464. Note here that Kroeber says he was generalizing each "dialect group" had 1000 people each in this model.</ref> Cartier estimated 10,000 Ohlone people.<ref>Cartier et al. 1991.</ref> Sherburne F. Cook originally estimated 10,000 to 11,000 in The Conflict Between the California Indian and White Civilization<ref>Cook, 1976, Conflict, pages 183, 236-245.</ref> However, Cook did more scientific research and revised his figures later in life to project an estimated 26,000 people resided in the "Northern Mission Area".<ref>Cook, 1976, Population, page 42-43: "The Northern Mission Area...26,000."</ref> Per Cook, the "Northern Mission Area" means "the region inhabited by the Costanoans and Salinans between San Francisco Bay and the headwaters of the Salinas River. To this may be added for convenience the local area under the jurisdiction of the San Luis Obispo even though there is an infringement of the Chumash".<ref>Cook, 1976, Population, page 20.</ref> In this model, the native Ohlone-Costanoan people's territory was one half of the "Northern Mission Area". It was however known to be more densely populated than the southern areas<ref>Cook, 1976,Conflict, page 187.</ref>, so a reasonable estimate is that about 18,200 people (70% of the "Northern Mission Area" population) were Ohlone, plus or minus a few thousand, using this model.<ref>We here calculated the Ohlone estimate of 18200 plus or minus a thousand from Cook's statements, but he himself does not give a number. </ref>

After contact, Cook describes rapidly declining indigenous populations in California between 1769 and 1900, in the Summary and Conclusions of his posthumously published book, The Population of the California Indians, 1769-1970.<ref>Cook, 1976, Population, page 200.</ref> Cook states in part: "Not until the population figures are examined does the extent of the havoc become evident."<ref>Cook, 1976, Population, page 200.

"The first (factor) was the food supply... The second factor was disease. ...<P> A third factor, which strongly intensified the effect of the other two, was the social and physical disruption visited upon the Indian. He was driven from his home by the thousands, starved, beaten, raped, and murdered with impunity. He was not only given no assistance in the struggle against foreign diseases, but was prevented from adopting even the most elementary measures to secure his food, clothing, and shelter. The utter devastation caused by the white man was literally incredible, and not until the population figures are examined does the extent of the havoc become evident."

</ref>

[edit] Etymology

Costanoan: Costanoan is an externally applied name (exonym). The Spanish explorers and settlers referred to the native groups of this region collectively as the Costeños (the "coastal people") circa 1769. Over time, the English-speaking settlers arriving later Anglicized the word Costeños into the name of Costanoans. (The suffix "-an" is English).<ref>Teixeira, 1997, page 4 "The Term 'Costanoan/Ohlone'".</ref> For many years, the people were called the Costanoans in English language and records.

Ohlone: since the 1980s (1978 publication of Malcolm Margolin's book The Ohlone Way) the name of Ohlone has been formally chosen by some of the members and the popular media to replace the name Costanoan. Ohlone might have originally derived from a Spanish rancho called Oljon, and referred to a single band who inhabited the Pacific Coast near Pescadero Creek.<ref name="Teix-pg4">Teixeira, 1997, page 4: "a tribe that once existed along the San Mateo County coast. 'Ohlone' can be traced through the mission records of Mission Dolores and through Bancroft's Native Races, which cites Frederick Beechey's Journal; account of a visit to the Bay Area in 1826-27." </ref><ref>Milliken, 1995, page 249: "A tribe on the lower drainages of San Gregario Creek and Pescadero Creek on the Pacific Coast". </ref> Oljone, Olchones and Alchones are spelling variations of Ohlone found in San Francisco Mission records.<ref name="Teix-pg4" /> However, due to its tribal origin, Ohlone is not universally accepted by the native people, and some members prefer to either to continue to use the name Costanoan or to revitalize and be known as the Muwekma.

The popularity of the name Ohlone is largely due to the book, The History of San Jose and Surroundings by Frederic Hall (1871), he noted that: "The tribe of Indians which roamed over this great [Santa Clara] valley, from San Francisco to near San Juan Bautista Mission...were the Olhones or (Costanes)." <ref>Hall, 1871, page 40; as reprinted by Bean, 1994, page 29-30.</ref>

Historically, based upon Kelsey's 1906 Special Indian Census and later Indian Service reports and correspondences of the three linguistically surviving communities of Ohlone<ref>In this case, the communities formerly federally recognized as: 1. Verona Band of Alameda County/Muwekma, 2. San Juan Bautista Band/Amah-Mutsun and 3. the Monterey Band of Monterey County/Ohlone-Costanoan/Esselen Nation</ref>, only the Verona Band of Alameda County/Muwekma used the term Ohlone as a tribal identifier on their 1928-32, 1948-1957, 1968-70 BIA applications.^{[citation needed]} The tribal term Ohlone during the 1960s was exclusively used in reference to the Mission San Jose/Verona Band of Alameda County Indians.^{[citation needed]}

Muwekma: is the native people's word for the people in their language of Chocheño and Tamyen.<ref name="Teix-pg4" />

Amah: (also spelled "Ahmah") is the native people's word for the people in Mutsun.<ref>Bean, 1994, page 351: The Story of Indian Canyon by Ann Marie Sayers; Leventhal and all, 1993.</ref>

[edit] Language

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These Native Americans had no written language that we know of. The Ohlone-Costanoan language family is commonly called "Costanoan", sometimes "Ohlone". It is a member of the Penutian language group, and the Utian linguistic subgroup and is comprised of eight sub-languages, or dialects according to Milliken: Awaswas, Chalon, Chocheño, Karkin, Mutsun, Ramaytush, Rumsen, and Tamyen. The divisions are roughly equivalent to the way languages of the Romance family have the same roots; For example, at the extreme ends of the region, it might be as if French was spoken in Berkeley, and Portuguese in Monterey. Neighboring divisions however could understand and speak to each other, only having colloquial differences.<ref>Milliken, 1995, page 25-26, "Linguistic Landscape."</ref>

Ramaytush, Tamyen, Chochenyo and Karkin might have emerged as "distinctive linguistic Costanoan sub-groups within the Bay Area" due to amalgamating certain tribes together within the missions.<ref>Milliken, 1995, page 25-26, "Linguistic Landscape."</ref>

The Costanoan language group is for all pratical purposes considered extinct.

[edit] Native Names

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The native people belonged to one or more tribes, bands or villages, and/or to one the eight linguistic group regions (as assigned by ethnolinguists). Native names in the mission records were, in some cases, clearly the principal village names, in others the name assigned to the region of a "multifamily landholding group."<ref>Milliken, 1995, page 13, Footnote #1: "Most California anthropologists refer to the contact-period political groups of west Central Coast California as "tribelets", following Kroeber (1932). Yet "tribelet" has not taken hold as a term to describe similar multifamily landholding groups in other hunter-gathering and agricultural societies." (itallics are ours).</ref> <ref>Cook, 1976, pg. 14 seems to attribute the term tribelet to Kroeber (1932); Tribelets as defined by Cook are "small independent units of the linguistic stock as a whole. Each name also extends to the principle village of the tribelet, and thus demographically applies to the people who live there plus any others who might be scattered in the vicinity."</ref> Although many native names have been written in historical records, the exact spelling and pronunciations were never entirely captured and standardized in modern English.<ref>Milliken, 1995; For a very good source on Ohlone names, see Milliken, Appendix 1.</ref> Ethnohistorians can resort to approximating indigenous regional boundaries, as well.

Many of the tribal and village names come from the California Mission records of baptism, marriages and death.<ref>Cook, 1976</ref> Some names have come from Spanish and Mexican settlers, some from early Anglo-European travelers, and some from the memories of Native American "informants".<ref>Informants are natives still alive that could remember their group's native language and details. Interviews were made as early as 1890, and as late as the 1940s. Mainly from Bancroft (earliest), Kroeber and Merriam (published 1970s posthumously via R. F. Heizer and others).</ref> A few names were gleaned from diseños, Spanish and Mexican land grants made in California prior to the Mexican-American War.<ref>See Ranchos of California, Alta California. Prior to becoming part of the United States, Mexico had established a land granting system for California. It required the grantee to submit a "letter of request" accompanied by a "diseño de terreno", or design of the land (or landmap). Some of the diseño referenced former Indian villages and names, like Olompali State Historic Park; See Coast Miwok (see also: Place Names of Marin ISBN 0-9612790-9-5).</ref>

In addition, a large untranscribed trove of material is available for research in the records of Clinton H. Merriam housed at the Bancroft Library<ref>Merriam, 1979. Preface</ref>, and more material continues to be published by local historical societies and associations.

[edit] Spelling and pronunciation

Correct pronunciations of native words are tenuous at best. Many of the original sounds were first heard and copied down by Spanish missionaries using Spanish as a reference language, subject to human error, later translated into English and Anglicized over time. Spelling errors crept in as different missionaries kept separate records over a long period of time, under various administrators.<ref>Milliken, 1995; again</ref> In spite of this, we have some clues. Ethnohistorians Kroeber, Merriam, and others interviewed Native "informants" and were able to define some pronunciations on word lists. Ethnolinguists have used this to some advantage to create phonetic tables giving some semblance of languages. (See Languages)

[edit] Native Words

Selected Costanoan Words by Merriam<ref name="Merriam">Merriam, 1979.</ref>
Word	Schedule #56	Schedule #57	Word #
Salmon<ref>While Merriam does not seem to list the species, it is most likely Chinook salmon (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha), and less likely pink salmon (Oncorhynchus gorbuscha); although both ply in both bay areas.</ref>	Oo'-rahk	Hoo"-rah-ka	247
Abalone	Oo==ch<ref>The double equals require a ch over them, as listed.</ref>	Hah-shan	254
Redwood (Sequoia sempervirens)	-	Ho-o-pe	280
Live Oak (Quercus agrifolia)<ref>Valley Live Oak is listed, but this reference points to Coast Live Oak. Currently unknown why. Assume Merriam or Heizer knew what they were doing.</ref>	Yū'Ks	You-kish	296
Big round tule (Scirpus lacustris)<ref>This species was listed but not available on Wikipedia. A generic tule will be used until otherwise corrected, or available reference is found.</ref>	Rōks	Ró-kus	409
Legend: Word – refers to the English word in question. Schedule – means one or more interviews, with possibly one or more persons. Word Number – Merriam numbers his words for easy reference.

A partial table of words comes from Indian Names for Plants and Animals Among California and other Western North American Tribes by Clinton Merriam. Merriam was primarily a naturalist (and so chided by some), but gathered impressive data on California Indians, and his research endorsed by modern research guides.<ref>Teixeira, 1997, pages 33-34, "C. Hart Merriam". Merriam's research is housed at the Bancroft Library."</ref> This published list covers 400 Ohlone-Costanoan words. The interview for these words were accompanied by a picture to help insure accuracy, but Heizer noted the errors prone in the system of interview. The Indian words listed are by "phonetic English" pronunciations. Some special marks do not translate; they may require additional treatment by ethnolinguists.

[edit] Ethnohistorians and Linguists

The main ethnohistorians and ethnolinguists of Ohlone began with: Alfred L. Kroeber who researched the California Indians with a few publications on the Ohlone from 1904 to 1910, and C. Hart Merriam who researched the Ohlone in detail from 1902 to 1929. This was followed by John P. Harrington who researched the Ohlone languages from 1921 to 1939, and other aspects of Ohlone culture, leaving volumes of field notes at his death.<ref>Teixeira, 1997, "John Peabody Harrington," page 34.</ref>. Other research was added by Robert Cartier, Madison S. Beeler, and Sherburne F. Cook, to name a few. In many cases, the Ohlone names they used vary in spelling, translation and tribal boundaries, depending on the source. Each tried to understand and interpret the data of a complex society and their languages before the pieces vanished.<ref>For example, comparing their main published references.</ref>

There was noticeable competition and lack of agreement between the first scholars: Both C. Hart Merriam and John P. Harrington produced much in-depth Ohlone research in the shadow of the highly published Alfred L. Kroeber and both competed in print with Kroeber's historic published works. In the Editor's Introduction to Merriam (1979), Robert F. Heizer<ref>Robert F. Heizer was a protege of Kroeber and also the curator of Merriam's work; see also Bean, pages xxiii-xxiv</ref> states "both men disliked A. L. Kroeber." Letters between Merriam and Harrington attest to this situation. ^{[citation needed]}, Merriam is also described as "being jealous of Kroeber." ^{[citation needed]}. Harrington, independently working for the Smithsonian Institution cornered most of the Ohlone research as his own specialty, was "not willing to share his findings with Kroeber...Kroeber and his students neglected the Chumash and Costanoans, but this was done because Harrington made it quite clear that he would resent Kroeber's 'muscling' in.'"<ref>Bean, page xxiii-xxiv, quoting Heizer 1975.</ref>

Recent Ohlone historians that have revisited all facts are Lauren Teixeira, Randall Milliken and Lowell J. Bean. They all note the availability of mission records allow for continual research and understanding.

[edit] Notable Ohlone people

• 1777 – Chamis of the village Chutchui, on June 24, 1777 at the age of 20 became the very first neophyte to join the Mission San Francisco de Asís.
• 1777 – Xigmacse, A Yelamu chief, at the time of the establishment of the San Francisco Mission.
• 1779 – Charquín, given the baptismal name of Francisco in the same year, appears to have been the leader of the first band of runaways in 1789. Exiled to San Diego, mistakenly taken to Mexico City. Final whereabouts unknown.<ref name="Brown">Brown, 1974.</ref>
• 1782 – Mossués, captain of the village Pruristac in 1782, famous for his alliance with the Mission San Francisco de Asís.
• 1801 – Liberato Culpecse, one of the ancestors of the present day Muwekma Tribal community
• 1807 – Hilarion and George (their baptismal names) were two Ohlone men from the village Pruristac who served as alcades (Mayors) of the San Francisco Mission in 1807. As such, they were at the beginning of a long line of Mayors of San Francisco.
• 1823 – Pomponío was a famous outlaw leader, that along with his band, raided the missions. Evading authorities, he was captured in Marin County, then executed in Monterey.<ref name="Brown" /> At least, a creek and road are named after him.<ref name="Brown75">Brown, 1975.</ref>
• 1893 – Pedro Evencio believed to be the last San Mateo Indian. His son José Evencio lived at Coyote Point until World War II; final whereabouts unknown.<ref name="Brown" />
• 1904 – Avelina Cornates Marine, the granddaughter of Liberato Culpecse, died and was buried at the Ohlone Cemetery, in Fremont, Ca. ^{[citation needed]}
• 1913 – Barbara Solorsano died 1913, Mutsun languistic consultant to C. Hart Merriam 1902-4, from San Juan Bautista.<ref>Teixeira, 1997, page 33, 40.</ref>
• 1930 – Ascencion Solorsano de Cervantes, died 1930, renowned Mutsun doctor, principal linguistic and cultural informant to J. P. Harrington.<ref>Bean, 1994, page 133, 314.</ref>
• 1934 – Jose Guzman died 1934, he was one of the principal Chocheño linguistic and cultural consultants to J. P. Harrington.<ref>Bean, page 101-107; Teixeira, 1997, page 35.</ref>
• 1939 – Isabel Meadows, died 1939, the last fluent speaker of the Carmeleno language, Rumsien. On Isabel's BIA application of 1930, she listed her tribal origin as: "Mission Indian, Carmel Mission, Monterey County, California." <ref>Escobar, Lorraine Understanding the Composition of Costanoan Indians 1998.</ref>
• 1950s – Andrés Osorio, of Half Moon Bay, said to be the area's last "Indian", possibly Tulare or Mexican.<ref name="Brown" />

[edit] See also

Ohlone / Costanoan Indigenous People of California
Sub-Groups:
Karkin • Chocheño • Ramaytush • Tamyen • Awaswas • Mutsun • Rumsen • Chalon • List of Tribes & Villages
Culture:
Mythology • Traditional Narratives • Utian languages • Hunting & Gathering • Native American

</center>

[edit] Notes

<references/>

[edit] References

• Amah-Mutsun Tribe Website. Data retrieved November 21, 2006.
• Bean, Lowell John, editor, The Ohlone: Past and Present Native Americans of the San Francisco Bay Region. Menlo Park, CA: Ballena Press Publication, 1994. ISBN 0-87919-129-5
• Bean, Lowell John and Lawton, Harry. Some Explanations for the Rise of Cultural Complexity in Native California with Comments on Proto-Agriculture and Agriculture, included in Native Californians: A Theoretical Retrospective, 1976.
• Beeler, Madison S. Northern Costanoan, International Journal of American Linguistics, 1961. 27: 191-197.
• Brown, Alan K. Indians of San Mateo County, La Peninsula:Journal of the San Mateo County Historical Association, Vol. XVII No. 4, Winter 1973-1974.
• Brown, Alan K. Place Names of San Mateo County, published San Mateo County Historical Association, 1975.
• Cartier, Robert, et al. An Overview of Ohlone Culture; 1991; De Anza College, Cupertino, California. Reprinted from a 1991 report titled "Ethnographic Background" as prepared with Laurie Crane, Cynthia Janes, Jon Reddington, and Allika Ruby, ed. [1]
• Cook, Sherburne F. The Conflict Between the California Indian and White Civilization, Berkeley and Los Angeles, CA: University of California Press, 1976. ISBN 0-520-03143-1. Originally printed in Ibero-Americana (1940-1943).
• Cook, Sherburne F. The Population of the California Indians, 1769-1970. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, June 1976. ISBN 0-520-02923-2.
• Kroeber, Alfred L. 1907. "Indian Myths of South Central California". University of California Publications in American Archaeology and Ethnology 4:167-250. Berkeley (Six Rumsien Costanoan myths, pp. 199-202); online at Sacred Texts Online.
• Kroeber, Alfred L. 1907. The Religion of the Indians of California, University of California Publications in American Archaeology and Ethnology 4:#6. Berkeley, sections titled "Shamanism", "Public Ceremonies", "Ceremonial Structures and Paraphernalia", and "Mythology and Beliefs"; available at Sacred Texts Online
• Kroeber, Alfred L. 1925. Handbook of the Indians of California. Washington, D.C: Bureau of American Ethnology Bulletin No. 78; available at Yosemite Online Library
• Levanthal, Alan (Tribal Ethnohistorian), Rosemary Cambra (Chairwoman, Muwekma Ohlone Tribe), Loretta Escobar-Wyer (Chairwoman, Esselen Nation), and Irene Zwierlein (Chairwoman, Amah Mutsun Costanoan/Ohlone Tribe). Calif. Federal Recognition: A Request for Your Support, 1993 October 4. Data retrieved November 21, 2006.
• Margolin, Malcolm. The Ohlone Way: Indian Life in the San Francisco-Monterey Bay Area. Berkeley, CA: Heyday Books, 1978. ISBN 0-930588-02-9.
• Merriam, Clinton Hart. Indian Names for Plants and Animals among Californian and other Western North American Tribes Menlo Park, CA: Ballena Press Publication, 1979. ISBN 0-87919-085-X
• Milliken, Randall. A Time of Little Choice: The Disintegration of Tribal Culture in the San Francisco Bay Area 1769-1910 Menlo Park, CA: Ballena Press Publication, 1995. ISBN 0-87919-132-5 (alk. paper)
• Sunderland, Larry. Native American Historical Data Base (NAHDB)
• Stanger, Frank M. and Brown, Alan K. Who Discovered the Golden Gate?: The Explorers' Own Accounts 1969, publisher: San Mateo County Historical Association
• Teixeira, Lauren. The Costanoan/Ohlone Indians of the San Francisco and Monterey Bay Area, A Research Guide. Menlo Park, CA: Ballena Press Publication, 1997. ISBN 0-87919-141-4.

[edit] External links

• Costanoan Online Site Directory by Four Directions Institute
• Amah-Mutsun Tribe Website
• Ohlone/Costanoan Esselen Nation Website
• Costanoan-Ohlone Indian Canyon Resource
• Access Genealogy Costanoan Indian Tribe
• An Overview of Ohlone Culture
• Overview of Yelamu Ohlone
• Historic Background
• Chochenyo revival ("Release")
• Chochenyo revival ("Faith in Words")
• Chochenyo revitalization - language
• Mutsun revitalization - language
• Grammar of Mutsun
• Muwekma Ohlone Tribe Website
• Muwekma request for federal tribal recognition Court opinion 9/21/06
• A day in the Ohlone life.ar:أولون

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