Old Chinese

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Old Chinese (formerly called Archaic Chinese) (Simplified Chinese: 上古汉语; Traditional Chinese: 上古漢語; pinyin: shànggǔ hànyǔ), refers to the Chinese spoken from the Shang Dynasty (ended c. 1045 BC according to recent research), well into the Former Han Dynasty (206 BC to 9 AD). There are several distinct subperiods within that long period of time. The term is usually used in Historical Chinese phonology, which tries to reconstruct the way in which Old Chinese was pronounced.

Since Old Chinese was the language spoken by Chinese when classical works such as the Analects of Confucius, the Mencius, and the Tao Te Ching were written, and was the official language of the unified empire of the Qin Dynasty and long-lasting Han Dynasty, Old Chinese was preserved for the following two millennia in the form of Classical Chinese, a style of written Chinese that emulates the grammar and vocabulary of Old Chinese as presented in those works. Classical Chinese was for two millennia the usual language used for official purposes in China, Korea, Japan, and Vietnam. However, there is great variation within Classical Chinese, based mainly on when something was written, and the Classical Chinese of more recent writers, as well as that found outside of China, would probably be difficult for someone from Confucius's era to understand.

The phonology of Old Chinese is difficult to reconstruct, because the way the Chinese writing system indicates pronunciation is much less clear than the way an alphabet does.

1 Phonology
2 Lexicon
3 Grammar
4 References
5 External links

[edit] Phonology

For the pronunciation of Classical Chinese, see Classical Chinese: Pronunciation

Since Chinese is written with characters not alphabet, it is not easy for the Chinese to notice that the sounds of a language change with time. The story of the reconstruction of Old Chinese began with the recitation of Shijing, the first and most revered collection of poetry in China. Generations of Chinese literati were baffled to find that many lines in Shijing didn't rhyme smoothly, being unaware that the sounds of the Chinese language had long changed. Scholars such as Zhu Xi suggested that the ancients had their own way of reciting poems: they would change the reading of a character just to fit the rhyme. Such a way of reciting or reading poetry is called xieyin (叶音 lit. "harmonizing the sound").

Chen Di (陈第/陳第) of the Ming Dynasty was the first person to suggest that the lines in Shijing didn't rhyme just because the sounds had changed. The reconstruction of Old Chinese began when Gu Yanwu (顾炎武/顧炎武) of the Qing Dynasty divided the sounds of Old Chinese into 10 rime groups (韵部 yunbu). Other Qing scholars followed Gu's steps, refining the division. The Swedish sinologist Bernhard Karlgren was the first person to reconstruct the actual phonetic values of Old Chinese.

Scholars who try to reconstruct the phonology of Old Chinese have to rely on indirect evidence. They heavily rely on those rhymed pre-Qin texts, chiefly Shijing, and the fact that characters sharing the same phonetic component were homophones or near-homophones when the characters were first created.

There is much dispute over the phonology of Old Chinese. Today it is agreed that Old Chinese had consonant clusters such as *mr-, *-ts, *dr- and others, which do not occur in any modern Chinese dialect. However, the following issues are still open to debate:

that Old Chinese had pharyngealized consonants or other rare features.
that Old Chinese was polysyllabic instead of monosyllabic.
that Early Old Chinese was not a tonal language. The tones of Middle Chinese evolved from consonants in Old Chinese that had since changed or disappeared, and in turn the tones of modern spoken Chinese languages, such as Mandarin, evolved from the Middle Chinese tones.

[edit] Lexicon

The traditional view is that each Chinese character represents a single morpheme. However, today there are scholars seriously studying the morphology of Old Chinese. Sagart (1999) provides a detailed analysis of 12 possible affixes.

[edit] Grammar

The grammar of Old Chinese is not identical to that of Classical Chinese. Many usages found in Classical Chinese are absent in Old Chinese. For example, the word 其 (qí) can be used as a third-person pronoun (he/she/it/they) in Classical Chinese, but not in Old Chinese, where it serves as a third-person possesive adjective (his/her/its/their).

[edit] References

Baxter, William H. A Handbook of Old Chinese Phonology. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. 1992. ISBN 311012324
Karlgren, Bernhard, ed. Grammata Serica Recensa. Stockholm: Museum of Far Eastern Antiquities. 1957.
Pulleyblank, E.G. "The Consonantal System of Old Chinese," Asia Major 9: 58-144, 206-65. 1963.
Sagart, Laurent. The Roots of Old Chinese. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. 1999. ISBN 1556199619
Schuessler, Axel. ABC Etymological Dictionary of Old Chinese. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. 2006. ISBN 0824829751

[edit] External links

An Etymological Dictionary of Common Chinese Characters, William H. Baxter
Odds on the Odes, a book review of Baxter's A handbook of Old Chinese phonology, by Wolfgang Behr
Introduction to Chinese Historical Phonology, Guillaume Jacques

[edit]

Chinese: spoken varieties

Categories:

Gan | Hakka | Hui | Jin | Mandarin | Min | Ping | Xiang | Wu | Cantonese
Danzhouhua | Shaozhou Tuhua

Subcategories of Min:

Subcategories of Mandarin:

Note: The above is only one classification scheme among many.
The categories in italics are not universally acknowledged to be independent categories.

Comprehensive list of Chinese dialects

Official spoken varieties:

Standard Mandarin | Standard Cantonese

Historical phonology:

Old Chinese | Middle Chinese | Proto-Min | Proto-Mandarin | Haner

Chinese: written varieties

Official written varieties:

Classical Chinese | Vernacular Chinese

Other varieties:

Written Vernacular Cantonese

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