Philippine Revolution
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
- This article is about a late 19th-century revolution. For a late 20th-century event, also referred to as Philippine Revolution, see 1986 EDSA Revolution.
| Philippine Revolution | |||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| |||||||
| Combatants | |||||||
| Filipino independence movement | Spanish Empire | ||||||
| Commanders | |||||||
| Andres Bonifacio, Emilio Aguinaldo | Spanish Governor-General of the Philippines | ||||||
| Strength | |||||||
| 80,000 soldiers | unknown | ||||||
| Casualties | |||||||
| unknown | unknown | ||||||
The Philippine Revolution (1896—1898) was a conflict between the Spanish colonial regime and the Katipunan, which sought independence for the Filipinos.
Contents |
[edit] History
When the Revolution began, the Spaniards had ruled the Filipinos for over 300 years. During that time, power was centered around the central colonial administration in Manila and the Church, though in reality, the Dominican friars exercised more power due to their hold over the populace. The administration burdened the Filipinos with excessive taxation and polo. It was because of this and other factors that several revolts occurred during this era, all without success. This was due to the official policy of divide et impera - divide and rule. For example, Filipino troops from the Tagalog provinces were used to suppress a revolt in the Ilocos, and a Visayan revolt was suppressed using troops from Pampanga province. This caused hate and discord among the Filipino people, never to unite until the late 19th century.
[edit] Causes
What caused the Revolution was a combination of external and internal factors. On the external side, the Filipino archipelago was opened to foreign trade during the mid-19th century, an opening aided further by the launch of the Suez Canal in 1869. Along with an influx of products from outside lands came an inflow of ideas. Ideas such as liberty and independence - ideas banned by the colonial administration and the entrenched frailocracia. The people who were influenced by these ideas were the same people who benefited from the trade--the ilustrados. Members of this merchant class sent their sons to universities in Spain and elsewhere in Europe to study. Many of these students, chief among them Jose Rizal & Graciano Lopez-Jaena, would form the Propaganda Movement.
The internal factor was the martyrdom of Gomburza. During the mid-19th century, a campaign was started by Father Pedro Pelaez, calling for the "naturalization" of Filipino parishes--the turnover of the latter to native-born Filipino priests. After Pelaez's death in an earthquake, the campaign was led by three priests--Fathers Mariano Gomez, Jose Burgos, and Jacinto Zamora.
The frailocracia was adamantly opposed to this movement and tried to find a pretext for arresting the priests. They finally found their chance when a mutiny in the fort in Cavite was aborted. Although the three priests had nothing to do with the mutiny (led by a disaffected military officer), the friars accused them of involvement in it. After a swift trial, the priests--known posthumously as Gomburza--were executed by garrote in February of the same year. The archbishop of Manila refused the order that they be defrocked and instead ordered the pealing of church bells as a sign of mourning.
Many Filipinos were disillusioned by this tragic event. Years later, a Filipino by the surname of Rizal would later acknowledge this as the one event that changed his life forever.
[edit] Propaganda Movement
Image:B155.jpg A group of Filipino students in Madrid, shocked by what they saw as a major difference between Spain and her colony, formed the Propaganda Movement. Counting among its members Rizal, Lopez-Jaena, the political exile Marcelo del Pilar (also known by his pen name Plaridel), Mariano Ponce, the brothers Luna (Juan and Antonio), among others, they published a fornightly newspaper called La Solidaridad. The aim of the paper was to publicize the terrible condition of the Philippine colony. The publication lasted from 1889 to 1895. Copies of it were smuggled into the Philippines.
In its later years, the movement suffered a split. One faction supported del Pilar as the movement's leader, while the other one supported Rizal. To stop this, Rizal volunteered to pack his bags and leave Barcelona, where the movement was by now based. It would signal the slow and steady downfall of the movement. The subsequent demise of both Lopez-Jaena and del Pilar rendered the movement ineffective in its campaign for internal reform in the colony as well as representation in the Cortes. Despite this, their efforts were not in vain. It helped to expose the terrible state of the Filipino nation not only to Spaniards and other foreigners, but also, most importantly, to the Filipinos.
[edit] La Liga Filipina
Rizal returned to his native land in 1892 and established La Liga Filipina. The progressive-minded organization continued Rizal's aim of implementing reforms inside the colony. Despite its declaration of being a peaceful organization, the Spaniard administration felt threatened by its presence (they were especially disturbed by one of the league's clauses calling for "defence against all violence and injustice") and arrested Rizal on July 6.
The league subsequently split. The moderate wing reorganized itself as Cuerpo de Compromisarios with the aim of providing funds for La Solidaridad. The radical wing, led by a clerk named Andres Bonifacio, became the Katipunan.
[edit] Katipunan
On the night of July 7, 1892, three members of the defunct Liga: Bonifacio, Ladislao Diwa, Teodoro Plata, Deodato Arellano, formed the Katipunan in a house on Calle Azcarraga (modern-day Claro M. Recto Avenue). Also in attendance were other members of the Liga, among them Deodato Arellano and Valentin Diaz. The stated aim of this secret society was total national liberation from the Spanish overlord. To achieve this, Bonifacio and his fellow katipuneros instituted a Katipunan government that they intended to set in place of the Spanish colonial government. Next, they invested their funds on purchasing firearms. They sought the help of a Japanese ship docked in Manila to buy firearms, but they failed.
To spread their idea of national revolution, they published the newspaper Kalayaan (Freedom). It was printed (along with other Katipunan documents) on a printing press bought from the lottery winnings of Francisco del Castillo and Candido Iban, who would later found the Katipunan in Cebu. In order to mislead the Spanish authorities of the location of the newspaper's printing press, the paper carried a false masthead declaring Marcelo del Pilar the editor and Yokohama the site of the printing press. Kalayaan was published only once before the katipuneros, having knew of the organization's discovery by the Spaniards, destroyed the paper's printing press. It didn't take long before the Katipunan expanded to other provinces. By March 1896, Katipunan councils were formed in the towns of San Juan del Monte, San Felipe Neri, Pasig, Pateros, Marikina, Caloocan, Malabon, among others. It later spread to the provinces of Bulacan, Batangas, Cavite, Nueva Ecija, Laguna and Pampanga. It also included women among its ranks, with the first female inductee in 1893. From a measly 300, the Katipunan expanded to over 30,000 members. Bonifacio's plan to liberate Katagalugan (as he called the Philippines) was finally coming to fruition.
[edit] Cry of Pugadlawin
There were two workers at Diario de Manila who had a secret. Teodoro Patiño and Apolonio de la Cruz were katipuneros. The two had a conflict and Patiño decided to seek revenge by exposing the Katipunan to his sister, a nun, who in turn revealed it to Padre Mariano Gil. The priest then asked Patiño to give evidence to what he's saying. They were led to the printing press of Diario de Manila and found a lithographic stone used to print the secret society's receipts. A locker was found containing a dagger and other Katipunan documents.
Immediately, several arrests were issued. Those who were arrested included some of the wealthiest ilustrados in that time. Despite denying their role in the Katipunan, some of them were executed. (It was speculated by some that Bonifacio intended for these things to happen, in order to coerce the wealthy into joining the Katipunan).
Fortunately, the news reached into the top leaders of the organization. Fleeing for their lives, they immediately called a meeting of the remaining katipuneros, first in Kangkong and then in the house of katipunero Juan Ramos in Pugadlawin in Balintawak. The first meeting yielded nothing. On the second meeting, the Supremo, fed up with the seemingly-endless squabbling of the katipuneros, tore up his cedula (residence certificate) and cried "Mabuhay ang Katagalugan!" (Long live Katagalugan!, similar to "Mabuhay ang Pilipinas!", Long live the Philippines!). This action was followed by majority of the katipuneros in attendance. The Revolution had begun.
The first armed encounter between the Spanish colonists and the Katipunan happened in Pasong Tamo in Caloocan. The first battle of the katipuneros occurred in San Juan del Monte in Manila. With the katipuneros having the upper arm initially, they were subsequently defeated by the reinforcements of Governor-General Ramon Blanco. Bonifacio then ordered the katipuneros to retreat to Mandaluyong.
[edit] Death of Rizal
Not long after the disastrous defeat at Pinaglabanan (the name of the battle), several Katipunan uprisings occurred in the nearby provinces. This forced Governor-General Blanco to place eight provinces under martial law (These provinces, Manila, Bulacan, Cavite, Pampanga, Tarlac, Laguna, Batangas, and Nueva Ecija, will later be represented in the eight rays of the sun in the Filipino flag). Arrests and interrogations were intensified. Many Filipinos died from the intense torture the Spanish officials exacted upon them. Yet it did nothing to terrify the Filipinos into submission; instead, it only intensified their hatred of the Spaniards.
By the time the Revolution broke out, Jose Rizal volunteered to serve as a doctor in Cuba, where a similar revolution took place. Instead of taking him to Barcelona from where he would be sent to Cuba, his ship, acting upon orders from Manila, took him instead to the capital where he was imprisoned in Fortaleza (Fort) Santiago. There he wrote his last poem and awaited his execution, which came in December 30, 1896, after a mock trial. Although Rizal opposed the Katipunan from the beginning, he became, through his execution, a martyr of the Revolution. This grave mistake by the Spaniards fanned the Filipinos' anger and ensured that the Revolution would stay.
[edit] Cavite
The province of Cavite gradually emerged as the Revolution's hotbed. The katipuneros there, led by the young General Emilio Aguinaldo, had a string of victories. It wasn't long before the issue of leadership of the Revolution took place, especially in Cavite. The Magdiwang faction, led by Bonifacio's uncle Mariano Alvarez, recognized Bonifacio as leader due to him being the founder and Supremo of the Katipunan. The Magdalo faction, led by Emilio's cousin Baldomero Aguinaldo, agitated for Heneral Miong (Emilio's nickname) to be the Revolution's leader due to his string of victories as against Bonifacio's succession of defeats. The friction between the two intensified further when they refused to cooperate or aid each other in battle. As a result, the Spanish forces, now under the command of Governor-General Camilo de Polavieja, were steadily gaining ground.
[edit] Tejeros Convention
In order to unite the katipuneros in Cavite, the Magdiwang invited Bonifacio, who was fighting in Morong (modern-day Rizal) province, to come to Cavite. The Supremo reluctantly obliged. On December 31, an assembly was convened in Imus to settle the leadership issue once and for all. The Magdalo agitated for the establishment of a pamahalaang mapanghimagsik (revolutionary government) to replace the Katipunan and continue the Revolution. On the other hand, the Magdiwang favored the Katipunan's retention, arguing that it was a government in itself. The assembly ended inconclusively.
On March 22, 1897, another assembly was formed in Tejeros. It called for the election of officers for the pamahalaang mapanghimagsik. Bonifacio-again reluctantly-chaired the election, which led to the Katipunan's demise.
Bonifacio, apparently confident that he would be elected president, called for the election results to be respected. When the voting ended, Bonifacio lost the race--and the Revolution--to Aguinaldo, who was away fighting in Pasong Santol. According to Filipino historian Ambeth Ocampo, Bonifacio lost the position through dagdag-bawas. When he was elected director of the interior, one Magdalo by the name of Daniel Tirona questioned his ability to serve that position. Infuriated, the Supremo drew his pistol and was about to shoot at him had Artemio Ricarte not intervened. Bonifacio then declared the election null and void and left the convention in anger. Aguinaldo took his oath of office the next day in Santa Cruz de Malabon (modern-day Tanza) in Cavite, as did the rest of the officers, except Bonifacio.
[edit] Death of Bonifacio
In Naic, Bonifacio and his officers created the Naic Military Agreement. It stipulated the establishment of a rival government to Aguinaldo's. It also rejected the election at Tejeros and restored Bonifacio as the Revolution's "true" Supremo. When Heneral Miong learned of the document, he ordered the arrest of Bonifacio and his loyal men. Colonel Agapito Benzon chanced upon Bonifacio in Limbon. In the subsequent conflict, Andres and his brother Procopio were wounded, while their brother Ciriaco was killed. They were taken to Naic to stand "trial".
Despite a lack of evidence, the Consejo de Guerra (War Council) sentenced Andres and Procopio Bonifacio to death for sedition and treason. Aguinaldo commuted the punishment to deportation, but withdrew his commutation following pressure from military officials.
On May 10, Colonel Lazaro Makapagal, upon orders from ex-Bonifacio supporter General Mariano Noriel, executed the brothers Bonifacio on Mt. Buntis. For the man whose ideals and perseverance helped spark the Revolution in the first place, it was an ignominous end, especially when he, along with his brother, were buried in shallow graves, marked only with twigs.
[edit] Biak-na-Bato
It seemed as if Andres Bonifacio's death entailed a curse upon the revolutionary forces. One by one, several towns in Cavite were recaptured by the Spanish troops, augmented by new recruits from Spain. It did not, however, quench the fighting spirit of the Filipino forces. Aguinaldo's government moved from one town to another, until they finally settled in Biak-na-Bato, in the town of San Miguel de Mayumo in Bulacan. From here, they established what became known as the Republic of Biak-na-Bato, with a constitution drafted by Isabelo Artacho and Felix Ferrer and based on the first Cuban Constitution.
The new Spanish Governor-General, Fernando Primo de Rivera, once commented, "I can take Biak-na-Bato. Any army can capture it. But I cannot finish the rebellion." So he proffered the olive branch of peace to the revolutionaries. Lawyer Pedro Paterno volunteered as negotiator between the two sides. For 4 months, he moved back and forth between Manila and Biak-na-Bato. His hardwork finally bore fruit when, on December 14-15, 1897, the Treaty of Biak-na-Bato was signed. Made up of three documents, it called for the following actions:
- The surrender of Aguinaldo and the rest of the revolutionary corps.
- Amnesty for those who participated in the Revolution as common soldiers.
- Exile to Hong Kong for the revolutionary leadership.
- Payment by the Spanish government to the revolutionaries in three installments: P400,000 upon leaving the country, P200,000 upon the surrender of at least 700 firearms and a similar amount upon the declaration of general amnesty.
In accordance with the first clause, Aguinaldo and 25 other top officials of the Revolution left for Hong Kong with P400,000 in their pockets. The rest of the revolutionaries asked for the other P400,000 to be given to them; instead, they were given P200,000.
[edit] The Revolution Continues
Not all revolutionary generals complied with Biak-na-Bato. One, Gen. Francisco Makabulos, established a Central Executive Committee to serve as the interim government until a stable, general one was established. Some revolutionaries continued to fight, this time comprising almost all of the provinces in Spanish-governed Philippines. For their part, the Spaniards still continued arresting and torturing those they suspected of "banditry", as they called the action of the revolutionaries.
Not even Aguinaldo and the rest of the exiled revolutionary corps trusted the Spaniards to fullfill their promises. The 400,000 pesos they received from the Treaty of Biak-na-Bato was used to purchase more firearms.
There was no peace after Biak-na-Bato. The Spaniards and their once-loyal subjects now had conflicting goals, and both were determined to achieve those goals, by any means necessary.
[edit] American Intervention
The Revolution could not have happened at such an opportune time. Not only where the Spaniards waging war against the Filipinos, they were also engaged in a much more costly war against an emerging world power. After the "destruction" of the USS Maine, the United States of America, under the leadership of President William McKinley, declared war against Spain. The Americans, in particular, were concerned over the situation in Cuba, where a revolution was also going on and where the Spaniards were giving the Cubans same treatment as they did the Filipinos. US newspapers, in particular, published stories that portrayed the Spanish authorities in Cuba as merciless, barbaric evil-doers. The governor-general there, Valeriano Weyler (who also served as Governor-General of the Philippines), was often called names, most notable among them "butcher". The angry American people quickly called for war against the "cold-blooded" Spaniards, fulfilled by a US Congress vote favoring direct US intervention in Cuba.
Commodore George Dewey, acting upon orders, sailed to Manila Bay on April 25, 1898. He encountered a fleet of 12 old, rusty, reeking ships commanded by Admiral Patricio Montojo. The resulting battle lasted only a few hours, with all of Adm. Montojo's fleet gone. Dewey called for armed reinforcements since he had no troops to capture Manila and had to satisfy himself and his fleet with blockading Manila Bay.
Meanwhile, Aguinaldo was visited by two US consuls, E. Spencer Pratt and Rounceville Wildman. The two urged Aguinaldo to again take up the mantle of leadership in the Revolution. After some discussion with his "Hongkong Junta", he agreed to return to the country with Commodore Dewey.
When Aguinaldo returned to Hong Kong after a brief spell in Singapore (where he had met Pratt), Dewey had already gone for Manila. The commodore, however, left instructions for the arrangement of Heneral Miong's return to the country. He left Hong Kong aboard the ship McCulloch on May 15, 1898, and arrived in Cavite two days later.
Jubilance and ecstasy marked the general's return. Several revolutionaries, as well as Filipino soldiers employed by the Spaniards, submitted themselves to Aguinaldo's command. Soon after, Imus and Bacoor in Cavite, Parañaque and Las Piñas in Morong, Macabebe and San Fernando in Pampanga, as well as Laguna, Batangas, Bulacan, Nueva Ecija, Bataan, Tayabas (now Quezon), and the Camarines provinces, were liberated by the Filipinos. They were also able to secure the port of Dalahican in Cavite. The Revolution was again at full steam.
[edit] Climax
The Spanish colonial government, now under Governor-General Basilio Agustin, was desperate. In order to win over the Filipinos from Aguinaldo and the Americans, Agustin declared the establishment of a Volunteer Militia and Consultative Assembly. Both were made up of Filipinos.
Despite this, however, the Filipinos remained loyal to the Revolution. The Volunteer Militia literally joined its supposed enemy, while the Assembly, chaired by Paterno, accomplished nothing.
[edit] Declaration of Independence
By June, Luzon (except Manila and the port of Cavite) was under Filipino control. The revolutionaries were laying siege to Manila and cutting off its food & water supply. With almost the whole of the Filipino archipelago under his hands, Aguinaldo thought it necessary to establish a government.
When Heneral Miong arrived, he had with him a copy of a plan drawn by Ponce, calling for a revolutionary government to be established. Upon the advice of Ambrosio Rianzares Bautista, however, a dictatorial one was established instead on May 24, with Aguinaldo as dictator.
It was under the dictatorial government that independence was finally proclaimed on June 12, 1898 in Aguinaldo's house in Kawit, Cavite. The Filipino flag and anthem were displayed and played, respectively, for the first time.
Apolinario Mabini, one of Aguinaldo's top advisers, was opposed to Heneral Miong's move from the beginning. He instead urged first the reformation of a government that could prove its stability and competency. When Aguinaldo refused to comply with the Sublime Paralytic's advice, the latter urged the general to turn his dictatorial government into a revolutionary one. This Aguinaldo heeded, and was done on July 23.
[edit] Aftermath
The Revolution did not end with June 12. Not until December were the Filipinos able to liberate Spanish-controlled Philippines. And not until August 14 did Manila fall to the Americans.
Upon the recommendations of the decree that established the revolutionary government, a Congreso Revolucionario was assembled at Barasoain Church in Malolos, Bulacan. All of the delegates to the congress were from the ilustrado class, symbolizing the Revolution's change of leadership since Tejeros. Mabini objected to the congreso's call for a constitution; when this failed, Mabini drafted a constitution of his own, and this too failed. A draft constitution by ilustrado lawyer Felipe G. Calderón was instead considered.
On the November 29, the popularly-called Malolos Congress finished its work. Gen. Aguinaldo, however, refused to sign it over the objections of Mabini. Only in January 21, 1899, was the constituton approved by Aguinaldo, after a few modifications were made to suit Mabini's arguments.
Two days later, the Filipino Republic (also called the First Republic and Malolos Republic) was inaugurated, also in Malolos, with Gen. Aguinaldo as president.
[edit] Legacy
The Philippine Revolution was, and still is, important in many aspects.
- First, it was the first nationalistic revolution of its kind in the Asia. Most subsequent revolutions in Asia--the Indonesian National Revolution, the revolution in Vietnam, and the Chinese Revolution--all follow, or improved, the example of the Filipinos.
- Second, the Revolution led to the establishment of the first independent republic in Asia. Although unrecognized by most nations, the First Republic was still important in that it represented the desires of a brown, Asian people to be independent of control by any white world power. The fact that the Philippine-American War occurred showed that the Filipinos were unwilling to give up their freedom to colonists.
- Third, the Revolution united the Filipinos for the first time. Before and during Spanish colonization, there was no such thing as a Filipino people. With the Revolution, the people in the Islands no longer saw themselves as Tagalogs, Ilokanos, Kapampangans, Visayans, etc. first, but as Filipinos.
- And fourth, it showed how unity or disunity can affect such a revolution. The internal struggle between Bonifacio and Aguinaldo was one reason why the Revolution faltered at its crucial stage. Even after that, the refusal of several revolutionaries (many of them pro-Bonifacio) to place themselves under Aguinaldo's command did much to disunite the Filipinos and hurt the cause.
[edit] See also
[edit] External links
- The Philippine Revolution by Apolinario Mabini
- The Philippine Revolution by Emilio Aguinaldo
- Centennial Site: The Katipunan
- Leon Kilat covers the Revolution in Cebu
- Another site on the Revolution
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