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Religion and sexuality

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  • This article is primarily about religious attitudes to sexual morality. For an overview of cultural attitudes to sex, see Sexual norm.
  • More extensive coverage of homosexuality, one of the more controversial areas in this topic, is in the article on Religion and homosexuality.

Sexual morality varies greatly over time and between cultures. A society's standards of sexual morality can be linked to religious beliefs, or social and environmental conditions.

Sexuality and reproduction are fundamental elements in human interaction and society worldwide. Accordingly, most religions have seen a need to address the question of a "proper" role for sexuality in human interaction.

Different religions have different codes of sexual morality, which regulate sexual activity or assign normative values to certain sexually charged actions or thoughts. The views of religions and religious believers range widely, from holding that sex and the flesh are evil to the belief that sex is the highest expression of the divine. Views on sexuality may not even be shared among adherents of a particular sect. Some religions distinguish between sexual activities that are practiced for biological reproduction (sometimes allowed only when in formal marital status and at a certain age), and other activities practiced for sexual pleasure.

Although a popular hypothesis holds that a high degree of societal religiosity correlates with lower rates of non-monogamous sexual activity, a 2005 summary of various studies found that rates of sexually transmitted diseases, abortion, and early adolescent pregnancy are in fact lower in secular societies.<ref>Paul, Gregory S. (2005). Cross-National Correlations of Quantifiable Societal Health with Popular Religiosity and Secularism in the Prosperous Democracies: A First Look. Journal of Religion and Society, volume 7, 2005. Article online.</ref>

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[edit] Spreading sexual morality to non-adherents

Many cultures attempt to codify their prescriptions concerning individual sexual behaviours. Such codifications are frequently enacted as laws, extending their application beyond the culture to other cultures under the purview of the laws, including dissenters.

Most of the Islamic world has strict rules enforced with sometimes violent punishments to enforce Islamic moral codes, including sexual morality on their citizens, and often attempt to impose it on non-Muslims living within their societies. The same was true of various European Christian regimes at some stages in history, and many contemporary Christians support restrictions on the private expression of sexuality, ranging from relatively uncontroversial prohibitions of prostitution to rather controversial restrictions on oral sex and sodomy. Haredi Jews in Israel use various verbal and print media (newspapers, books, radio shows, websites, etc.) to try to encourage other Jews to follow the Jewish laws of sexuality.

[edit] Abrahamic religions and sexuality

Different-sex sexuality, and specifically procreation, is currently viewed as the ideal by some members of the Abrahamic religions. They sanction monogamous and committed different-sex relationships within marriage. The Christian Old Testament prohibits adultery and different-sex intercourse during menses (Lev.15: 19-24), while the Jewish Hebrew Bible prohibits adultery and different-sex intercourse during the period of Niddah.

[edit] Judaism and sexuality

Main articles: Tzniut, Niddah, Yichud, Negiah, and Jewish views of homosexuality

Traditional Judaism prohibits sexual relations outside of homoreligious heterosexual marriage, maintains biblical strictures on relations within marriage including observance of Niddah, a prohibition on relations on a period including the menstrual period, and Tzniut, requirements of modest dress and behavior. Traditional Judaism views adultery, incest, and homosexuality as grave sins. See Jewish views of homosexuality. Judaism permits relatively free divorce, with Orthodox Judaism and Conservative Judaism requiring a religious divorce ceremony for a divorce to be religiously recognized. More liberal branches of Judaism have adapted perspectives more consistent with contemporary general secular culture.

[edit] Levels of modesty required according to Orthodox Judaism

Main article: Tzniut

There are several levels to the observance of physical and personal modesty (tzniut) according to Orthodox Judaism as derived from various sources in halakha Observance of these rules varies from aspirational to mandatory to routine across the spectrum of Orthodox stricture and observance.

  • A prohibition on dwelling on lascivious or immoral thoughts.
  • A prohibition on staring at members of the opposite sex, particularly at the reproductive anatomy.
  • A requirement to keep most of one's body clothed in respectable clothing.
  • A requirement to avoid the company of uncouth individuals and avoid frequenting places where an atmosphere of levity and depravity prevails.
  • A prohibition on looking at pictures or scenes that will be sexually arousing.
  • A prohibition on touching a person of the opposite sex, especially in a lingering arousing manner (shaking hands very quickly in greeting between sexes is a point of dispute, and depends on one's rabbi's halachic decision).
  • A prohibition on wearing the clothing of a member of the opposite sex.
  • A prohibition on looking at animals or birds copulating.
  • A prohibition on erotically hugging (chibuk) or kissing (nishuk) one's spouse in public, and when the wife is a niddah ("menstruant" who has not immersed in a mikvah).
  • A prohibition on seclusion with a person of the opposite sex who is not a spouse or close relative (Yichud)
  • A requirement that men and women be separated during prayer, dancing, and on certain other occasions Mechitza)
  • A prohibition on masturbation by men (hotza'at zera levatala -- "excreting semen in vain") (masturbation is not specifically prohibited for women).
  • A prohibition on sex with anyone of the same gender, or with any type of animal, or with a corpse is forbidden.

Orthodox Judaism also maintains a strong prohibition on interfaith sexual relations and marriage.

Orthodox Jews tend to have a lower intermarriage rate than their conservative and Reform counterparts. The 1990 National Jewish Population Survey indicated that of all the Jewish denominations, Orthodox Jews alone had a lower intermarriage rate in the 18-39 age category (3%) vs. the 40+ category (10%), compared with 37% vs. 10% for Conservative Jews, 53% vs. 10% for Reform Jews, and 72% vs. 39% for secular Jews. <ref>[1]</ref> A Jerusalem Center for Public Affairs showed that Orthodox Judaism had doubled among synagogue-affiliated Jews in the United States, from 10% in 1990 to 21.8% in 2001, and that most of this growth was in the stricter Haredi Judaism as opposed to Modern Orthodox Judaism. It speculated that this trend may have been related to a general trend towards greater religious and social traditionalism, as well as due to earlier marriage and higher birth rates in Orthodox families consistent with more traditional sexual behavior. <ref>Chaim Waxman, Winners and Losers in Denominational Memberships in the United States, Jerusalem Center for Public Affairs</ref>

Orthodox Judaism, alone of all the Jewish denominations, retains relatively mild traditional disabilities on divorce, including a Biblical prohibition on a Kohen (priestly descendant of Aaron) marrying a divorcee or a women who has engaged in certain types of sexual misconduct. These strictures, while observed, are generally regarded as matters of personal status rather than morality. An Orthodox bill of divorce is required for a divorce to be recognized.

[edit] In Conservative Judaism

Conservative Judaism, consistent with its general view that Halakha (Jewish law) is a binding guide to Jewish life but subject to periodic revision by the Rabbinate, has lifted some but not all of the strictures observed by Orthodox Judaism, and is currently debating whether to lift others. In particular, it has more lenient interpretations of Tzniut, lifting prohibitions on Yichud (being alone with a person of opposite sex not a spouse or close relative), prohibitions on separating men and women in synagogue worship in other gatherings, prohibitions on negiah (touching a person of opposite sex who is not a family member), and others. However, basic prohibitions on sex outside of homoreligious heterosexual marriage remain on the books, including prohibitions on homosexual conduct, interfaith marriage, and extramarital sex. The requirements of Niddah are still official requirements of Conservative Judaism.

However, many of these prohibitions are currently essentially ignored in practical Conservative Jewish observance. For example, when the Jewish Theological Seminary proposed a policy against nonmarital cohabitation by rabbinical students in the 1990s, protests by cohabiting rabbinical students resulted in a recission of the policy.

In A Guide to Jewish Religious Practice, Conservative Rabbi Isaac Klein wrote a summation of Conservative Jewish views towards sex:

Modern man is heir to two conflicting traditions neither of which is Jewish: On the one hand, the rebirth of the old paganism which found its extreme expression in the sacred prostitutes of Canaan...and on the other hand, the Christian reaction to the excesses of paganism...sex became identified with original sin, and celibacy was regarded as the ideal form of life. Modern man, while opting for pagan libertinism, also suffers a guilty conscience because of his Christian heritage....Judaism is free of both extremes. It rejects the espousal of uncontrolled sexual expression that paganism preaches, and also Christianity's claim that all sexual activity is inherently evil. Jewish marriage is based on a healthy sexual viewpoint that rejects the two extremist principles, and so are the regulations governing the conjugal relations between husband and wife, taharat hamishpacha, the purity of family life. [Note that this passage presents Rabbi Klein's view of Christianity]

The Rabbinical Assembly (Conservative Judaism) has published a pastoral letter on human sexuality, "This Is My Beloved, This Is My Friend: A Rabbinic Letter on Intimate Relations". Topics include sex within marriage; having children; infertility; divorce; adultery; incest; single parenthood; non-marital sex; contraception; homosexuality; and the laws of family purity (taharat hamishpacha).

The Committee on Jewish Law and Standards, as part of a wide debate within Conservative Judaism, is currently considering whether to officially lift the Conservative prohibition on homosexual conduct in whole or in part. See Jewish views of homosexuality.

Conservative Judaism formally prohibits interfaith marriage and its standards indicate it will expel a Rabbi who performs an interfaith marriage (it will not expel a Rabbi who performs a gay marriage). It maintains a variety of formal strictures including a prohibition on making birth announcements in synagogue bulletins for children on non-Jewish mothers and accepting no-Jewish individuals as synagogue members. However, interfaith marriage is relatively widespread among the Conservative laity, and the Conservative movement has recently adapted a policy of being more welcoming of interfaith couples in the hopes of interesting their children in Judaism, and is considering relaxing some of its strictures.

Conservative Judaism, which was for much of the 20th century the largest Jewish denomination in the United States declined sharply in synagogue membership in the United States the 1990s, from 51% of synagogue memberships in 1990 to 33.1% in 2001, with most of the loss going to Orthodox Judaism and most of the rest to Reform. The fracturing in American society of opinion between increasingly liberal and increasingly traditionalist viewpoints on sexual and other issues, as well as the gap between official opinion and general lay practice vis-a-vis the more traditionalist and liberal denominations, may have contributed to the decline. <ref>Chaim Waxman, Winners and Losers in Denominational Memberships in the United States. Jerusalem Center for Public Affairs, 2005</ref>

[edit] In Reform Judaism and Reconstructionist Judaism

Reform Judaism and Reconstructionist Judaism do not observe or require traditional sexuality rules and have, in particular, welcomed nonmarried and homosexual couples and endorsed homosexual commitment ceremonies and marriages.

Reform and Reconstructionist Judaism are more tolerant of interfaith marriage, and many rabbis in both communities will perform one. Reform and Reconstructionist Judaism also do not require a religious divorce ceremony separate from a civil divorce.

It has been speculated that the more tolerant attitudes of Reform and Reconstructionist Judaism towards both sexual diversity and interfaith marriage may have contributed to the rise in their popularity during the 1990s, from about 33% of affiliated households to 38%, making it pass Conservative Judaism as the largest Jewish denomination in the United States. <ref>Chaim Waxman, Winners and Losers in Denominational Memberships in the United States. Jerusalem Center for Public Affairs, 2005</ref>

[edit] Christianity and sexuality

In Christianity, despite the wide variations between different Christian denominations, which often specifically include different views of sexuality, it is possible to draw a general picture of the underlying views and Biblical doctrines.

The basis of many Christian views comes from the idea that human sexuality was created by God with the twin purposes of procreation and intimacy—bringing a sexually active couple into a close emotional and spiritual relationship through the close physical relationship. As such, it should be restricted to a monogamous, lifelong relationship between a man and a woman: marriage. Marriage is a commitment to a close and lasting relationship and a basis on which to build a stable family. Because of the emphasis on the procreative function of sex, relationships and specific acts that do not lead to conception are frowned upon or expressly forbidden in some denominations.

Though most Christian denominations now accept contraception within marriage, no Christian denomination permitted it before 1930.

According to most Christian teachings, engaging in homosexual acts is considered sinful. There are, however, individual Christian churches and denominations that are open and affirming of homosexuality. Liberated Christians argue that the ancient teachings against premarital and extramarital sex were misread throughout previous centuries. According to this faith, the New Testament does not prohibit unmarried sexual activities.

[edit] Protestant and Anglican Churches

In many Lutheran, Reformed and United churches of the EKD in Germany and in the Netherlands or Switzerland and in the Lutheran church of Sweden is today a different, liberal view of homosexuality. In these Lutheran, United and Reformed churches (Luther/Calvin) gay priests are permitted in ministry and gay couples get a blessing in their churches. Also in some Methodist churches (England, Canada, Germany...) gay couples get a blessing in a church. Gay priests can marry their partners and can still work as priests.

In the Anglican church is a large discussion over the blessing of gay couples and over tolerance of homosexuality. Anglican (Episcopal) churches in Canada, USA or England permit gay priests in ministry and allow blessings (however Anglican churches in places such as eastern Africa have very conservative views over homosexuality). Gay priests in the Anglican church can marry their partners and can still work as priests.

There are also some evangelical churches (Southern Baptists (USA) for example) which still condemn homosexuality as a sin and blessings are forbidden.

Sex outside of marriage is frowned upon as immoral behavior by fundamentalist and conservative Christian sects, churches and some fringe groups. Reactions to it are mixed, ranging from requiring penance all the way to total ostracism of those who participate in it. In general, marriage is promoted by Christianity, but sex outside of marriage, and sex for pleasure, are accepted by most progressive churches as normal human behavior.

Some translations of the New Testament forbid fornication: "Fornicators, idolaters, adulterers,... will not inherit the kingdom of God". <ref>A paraphrasing of 1 Corinthians 6:9-10 eg: "The New Testament is characterized by an unconditional repudiation of all extra-marital and unnatural intercourse with animals." Dictionary of the New Testament, Friedrich Hauck and Siegfried Schulz (edited by Kittel and Friedrich) (Vol.6, p.590)</ref>. The original Koine Greek word translated as fornication is porneia. The Greek term is used by some churches to include any form of sexual misconduct, often including masturbation, and there is some debate as to the precise meaning of the word, which in Classical Greek refers specifically to prostitution and is etymologically the same root as in the English "pornography", which literally means "writing of the harlot". Porneia is unlikely to translate as fornication. Many scholars translate it more accurately as immorality.

[edit] Catholic and Orthodox Churches

Because Catholics consider marriage to be the only legitimate, God-sanctioned commitment to an intimate relationship, any sexual activity outside of marriage is discouraged. Extra-marital relationships are also viewed as not providing a secure environment for the raising of children. Before marriage, sexual expression should be limited to showing affection and attraction, with the aim of finding a marriage partner. While married, any sexual relationship with someone other than one's spouse is considered adultery and is forbidden. Masturbation is a contentious issue, but is generally and traditionally considered wrong because of its association with lust.

Within the modern Catholic Church, for example, the disallowance of sexual intercourse between non-married people is generally seen as stemming not from a belief in the inherent sinfulness or negativity of sex itself, but rather from a belief that sexual intercourse is the most sacred act a man and a woman can physically share. Thus, in order to fully experience this sacred bond, it is believed that one's sexuality should be saved for the person with whom one intends to spend the rest of one's mortal life. However centuries of advocating celibacy among Catholic clergymen as a "higher way" of life have led many throughout the church's existence to associate clerical asceticism with a general religious disapproval of sex, though it is of note that Catholic clergymen are also prohibited from marrying.

[edit] Islam and sexuality

Islam forbids celibacy as a form of religious practice, and considers the natural state for humans to be married.

Qur'anic verses made it legal for Muslim men to marry women from other Abrahamic religions (Jews and Christians). Later scholars extended this to include monotheistic religions as well (such as Zoroastrians). Contemporary scholars have upheld this ruling, but many view inter-faith marriages as unwise (as it leads to many problems such as determination of religion of children, etc), albeit legal.

A Muslim woman, on the other hand, is only allowed to marry a Muslim man, under the assumption that to marry a non-Muslim man would mean that the children would grow up as non-Muslims. Under Islamic law (shari'a), a marriage contract between a Muslim woman and a non-Muslim man is considered illegal and void, and hence legally an adulterous affair. The same is true for a marriage contract between a Muslim man and a women from a non-Monotheistic faith (such as Hinduism. This is debatable as Hindu beliefs are actually Monistic; however Buddhism is a nontheistic religion)).

All forms of sexual contact outside of a marriage are considered sinful. In particular, adultery warrants severe punishment. Pre-marital sex is also considered a grave sin, but its punishment is less severe. All shari'a laws regulating sexual conduct apply to both men and women equally, apart from those concerning menstruation (see below).

Most forms of sexual contact within a marriage are allowed. Sex is considered a pleasurable and even spiritual activity, and a duty. At least one hadith explicitly states that for a married couple to have sex is a good deed rewarded by God. Another hadith suggests that a man should not leave the proverbial bed until the woman is satisfied; a reference many say points to orgasm.

Forbidden sexual contact includes genital contact with a woman while she is menstruating. In such case, other sexual contact (such as kissing) is explicitly allowed. Anal sex is also generally forbidden; it is explicitly forbidden within the Sunni sect, but some Shi'a scholars hold that it is allowed if consensual. Other forms of sexual contact, such as oral sex, are not explicitly forbidden, and hence widely held to be permissible.

Marriage to close relatives is not permitted, and therefore such relationship would be considered incestuous. However, cousins (whether paternal or maternal), are not defined to be "close relatives", and hence are allowed to marry, which is not taboo or uncommon in most Muslim countries.

Milk kinship is considered equivalent to blood kinship, that is, if a mother or wet nurse breast feeds both babies, they are considered siblings, and the above rules apply.

Temporary marriage (Mut'a, marriage designated for a preset period of time) is not allowed by the majority Sunni school, but is allowed by Shia.

Polygyny is allowed in Islam (Up to 4 wives at the same time). Concubines, or slaves kept for the purpose of satisfying their masters sexual urges, have also commonly been a part of Muslim culture, famously associated as members of royal courts - "harems" - of Muslim rulers. However, women are strictly forbidden from practicing polyandry.

There are dissenting views on the topic of masturbation. While some scholars consider it unlawful and thus prohibited according to Islamic doctrine, others (such as those of the Hanbali doctrine) believe that those who masturbate out of fear of committing fornication or fear for their bodies have done nothing wrong and are not punished if (and only if) they are unable to marry.

Divorce is allowed in Islam; while in principle both genders have equal rights to initiate them, in practise men overwhelmingly have the upper hand. In most Muslim-majority nations, such biased attitudes usually allow husbands to secure property, child custody, and other rights away from their former wives after the dissolutions of their marriages. Indeed, in many areas, merely a verbal decree ("triple talaq") from a husband is sufficient in the eyes of their societies to sever his ties to one of his wives.

Homosexuality is forbidden in Islam; anal intercourse between a man and another man is explicitly punishable by death in accordance with the hadith: "Whomever you find doing the deed of the People of Lot, then kill both the doer and whomever he is doing it to." The four Caliphs upheld this ruling, as did all of the Prophet's companions. It is a capital crime in Iran, Saudi Arabia, The United Arab Emirates, Yemen, Sudan, and Mauritania. However, in many Muslim societies there have been reports of a wide array of otherwise banned sexual activities in practice. Especially in the Middle East, Central Asia, and South Asia, strict separation between genders may have something to do with widespread homosexual behaviours. In many Pashtun-dominated areas of Afghanistan and Pakistan, for example, relationships between older men and young boys ("halekon") have even been a part of the culture for centuries.

[edit] Hinduism and sexuality

Unlike other religions, in Hinduism views of sexual morality differ widely depending on the region and sect. Hindu scriptures themselves are often vague about sexuality. There are temples depicting sexual activity openly (examples include temple complexes at Ajanta and Ellora) and sexual imagery is not altogether sacrilege (for instance, the commonly-known phallic fertility symbol of the Shiva lingam), but strict married life and a good dose of sexual self-restraint (as well as in other aspects of life) are considered essential to a Hindu's well being and dharmic/karmic duties.

Religiously speaking, Hindus begin life at the Brahmacharya or "student" stage, in which they are directed to celibately advance themselves educationally and spiritually to prepare themselves for a life of furthering their dharma (religious duties) and karma (right earthly actions); only once they reach the Grihastya or "householder" stage can they seek kama (physical pleasure) in the strict context of marriage and artha (worldly achievement, material prosperity) through their vocations. To seek physical pleasure before the householder stage would violate the spiritual Hindu's prescribed life path.

In general, however, Hindu society has been influenced by a millennium of Islamic subjugation and centuries of colonial British influence (Victorian at the time) to reflect their quite conservative attitudes in matters pertaining to sex. Many contemporary Hindus (especially in large cities within India and/or second-generation immigrant communities in developed countries) have accepted Western notions like pre-marital sex, "love" marriages (compared to the more traditional arranged marriage), and homo-/bisexuality. Among more traditional elements of Hindu society, though, such concepts are still anathema.

Most culturally-sensitive Hindus adhere to sexual standards akin to Victorian morality, with both pre-marital and extra-marital sex perceived to be gravely immoral and shameful. In the religion's teachings, the prohibition against sex outside of marriage is largely related to the prescribed life stages Hindus are bound to follow if they are to attain moksha (the same as the Buddhist concept of nirvana, or enlightenment of the soul).

As influenced by the British and Islam, Indian law (influencing the highest concentration of Hindus) considers all except heterosexual monogamy to be illegal. Additionally, while there are no restictions on particular kinds of sexual activity, it is considered a highly private affair. Most Hindus are extremely averse to openly address anything related to sexuality, as such discussion or publicly romantic displays are viewed as exceptionally distasteful.

The Kama Sutra (Aphorisms of Love) by Vatsayana, widely believed to be just a manual for sexual congress, offers an insight into sexual mores, ethics and societal rules that were prevalent at that time (ca. 5 CE). Shrungara Ras (Romance, one of the nine rasas or emotions). A drama in Sanskrit, Shakuntalam by Kalidasa, is cited as one of the best examples of Shrungara Ras, talks of the love story of Dushyanta and Shakuntala.

[edit] Buddhism and sexuality

Buddhist teachings are usually disdainful towards sexuality and distrustful of sensual enjoyment and desire. Buddhist monks and nuns of most traditions are expected to refrain from all sexual activity (Japanese Buddhism being a notable exception), and the Buddha is said to have admonished his followers to avoid unchastity “as if it were a pit of burning cinders."<ref>Hammalawa Saddhatissa, Buddhist Ethics: The Path to Nirvana. (London: Wisdom, 1987), p. 88</ref>

A core teaching of Buddha's foundational first sermon is that "one should not pursue sensual pleasure (kama-sukha), which is low, vulgar, coarse, ignoble and unbeneficial." (Samyutta Nikaya V:420, Sutta Pitaka). This is reinforced in many passages of the Sutta Pitaka, such as the Simile of the Quail (Sutta 66 of the Majjhima Nikaya) where Buddha teaches that sensual pleasures are "filthy, coarse, and ignoble" and "should not be pursued, developed, or cultivated; they should be feared." In the Simile of the Snake (Sutta 22 of the Majjhima Nikaya), Buddha strongly rebukes those who say that sexual practice is not an obstacle to Enlightenment: "Misguided man... I have stated [time and again] how sensual pleasures provide little gratification, much suffering, and much despair, and how great is the danger in them. But you, misguided man [have] injured yourself and stored up much demerit; for this will lead to your harm and suffering for a long time."

In addition, the second of the Four Noble Truths states that the ultimate cause of all suffering is attachment and desire (tanha), and the third states that the way to eliminate suffering is to eliminate attachment and desire. Sexual practices are characterised as both attachment (kama-upadana) and desire (kama-tanha). Sensual desire (kama-cchanda) is also the first of the Five Hindrances, which must be eradicated if one is to progress spiritually. Of the three kinds of cchanda, kama-cchanda is the one that is ethically immoral.ref

Sexual desire is repeatedly described as kilesa, defilement of the mind.

Like other religions, Buddhism takes a strong ethical stand in human affairs and sexual behaviour in particular. The most common formulation of Buddhist ethics are the five precepts:

1 Refraining from harming living beings/practicing loving kindness

2. Refraining from taking the non-given/practicing generosity

3. Refraining from committing sexual misconduct/practicing contentment

4. Refraining from false speech/practicing truthful communication

5. Refraining from intoxicants/practicing mindfulness.

The precepts take the form of voluntary, personal undertakings i.e. they are training principles. Buddhists are to analyse their actions / thoughts in terms of these precepts, rather than subscribe to a divinely derived list of commandments. The third precept, sexual misconduct, has been interpreted differently by different Buddhist traditions. It is usually understood to include adultery, incest, sex with monks or nuns, but may also be interpreted to include anal sex, oral sex, masturbation and homosexuality.

This means that a householder may indulge in legitimate sex because in such activity there is no guilt and no sense of exploitation of the other party. Sex, according to Buddhism, should be neither unhealthily repressed nor morbidly exaggerated. It should always be under the control of the will, as it can be if it is regarded sanely and placed in its proper perspective.

[edit] Neopaganism and sexuality

Neo-Pagan religions tend to be positive about sexuality, and are almost unanimous in their acceptance of same-sex relationships as equal to heterosexual ones. Most Neo-Pagan religions have the theme of fertility (both physical and creative/spiritual) as central to their practices, and as such encourage a healthy sex life, which is seen as consensual sex between adults, regardless of gender or age. Specifically in the Wiccan tradition of modern Paganism, one of the widely accepted pieces of Craft liturgy, the Charge of the Goddess by Doreen Valiente instructs that "...all acts of love and pleasure are [the Goddess'] rituals", giving validity to all forms of consensual sexual activity for Wiccan practitioners.

[edit] See also

[edit] References

  • James Boswell, Christianity, Social Tolerance and Homosexuality: Gay People in Western Europe from the Beginning of the Christian Era to the Fourteenth Century, University Of Chicago Press, 1st ed. 1980 ISBN 0-226-06710-6, paperback Nov. 2005 ISBN 0-226-06711-4
  • Mathew Kuefler (editor), The Boswell Thesis : Essays on Christianity, Social Tolerance, and Homosexuality, University Of Chicago Press, Nov. 2005 ISBN 0-226-45741-9
  • Eckhart Tolle, The Power of Now: A Guide to Spiritual Enlightenment, New World Library, 1st ed. 1999, paperback 2004 ISBN 1-57731-480-8

[edit] Footnotes

<references/>

[edit] Further reading

[edit] In Buddhism

  • Faure, Bernard. The Red Thread: Buddhist Approaches to Sexuality. (Princeton University Press, 1998)
  • Sudo, Philip Toshio, Zen Sex: The Way of Making Love. (US: Harper SanFransisco, 2000)

[edit] In Judaism

[edit] Critical perspectives

  • Savramis, Demosthenes. The satanizing of woman: Religion versus sexuality. (New York: Doubleday, 1974)

[edit] External links

zh:性道德

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