Spirulina (food supplement)

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iSpirulina

Image:Arthrospira.jenneri.jpg

Arthrospira jenneri <ref>Tilden, Josephine. Minnesota Algae: The Myxophyceae of North America and Adjacent Regions. Minneapolis, Mn: Board of Regents of the University, 1910. plate IV.</ref> (platensis)

Scientific classification

Domain:	Bacteria
Phylum:	Cyanobacteria
Class:	Chroobacteria
Order:	Oscillatoriales
Family:	Phormidiaceae
Genus:	Arthrospira

Species

A. maxima
A. platensis

Spirulina is the common name for human and animal food supplements produced primarily from two species of cyanobacteria: Arthrospira platensis, and Arthrospira maxima. These and other Arthrospira species were once classified in the genus Spirulina. There is now agreement that they are distinct genera, and that the food species belong to Arthrospira; nonetheless, the inaccurate term "Spirulina" remains the popular name. Spirulina is cultivated around the world, and is used as a human dietary supplement, available in tablet, flake, and powder form. It is also used as a feed supplement in the aquaculture and poultry industries. <ref name="vonshak">Vonshak, A. (ed.). Spirulina platensis (Arthrospira): Physiology, Cell-biology and Biotechnology. London: Taylor & Francis, 1997.</ref>

1 History
2 Nutrients and Other Chemicals
3 Evidence of Health and Healing Effects
4 References
5 External links

[edit] History

Spirulina is believed to have been a food source for the Aztecs in 16th century Mexico, as its harvesting from Lake Texcoco and sale as cakes is described by one of Cortés' soldiers. <ref>Diaz Del Castillo, B. The Discovery and Conquest of Mexico, 1517-1521. London: Routledge, 1928, p. 300.</ref> The Aztecs called it Tecuitlatl, meaning stone's excrement. Spirulina was found in abundance at the lake by French researchers in the 1960s, but there is no reference to its use there as a daily food source after the 16th century. The first large-scale Spirulina production plant, run by Sosa Texcoco, was established there in the early 1970s. <ref name="vonshak" />

Spirulina may have an even longer history in Chad, as far back as the 9th century Kanem Empire. It is still in daily use today, dried into cakes called Dihé which are used to make broths for meals, and also sold in markets. The Spirulina is harvested from small lakes and ponds around Lake Chad. <ref>Abdulqader, G., Barsanti, L., Tredici, M. "Harvest of Arthrospira platensis from Lake Kossorom (Chad) and its household usage among the Kanembu." Journal of Applied Phychology. 12: 493-498. 2000.</ref>

[edit] Nutrients and Other Chemicals

Protein
Spirulina contains unusually high amounts of protein, between 55 and 77% by dry weight, depending upon the source. It is a complete protein, containing all essential amino acids, though with reduced amounts of methionine, cysteine, and lysine, as compared to standard proteins such as that from meat, eggs, or milk; it is, however, superior to all standard plant protein, such as that from legumes. <ref name="ciferri">Ciferri, O. "Spirulina, the Edible Microorganism." Microbiological Reviews. 47, 4, Dec. 1983.</ref><ref name="uzbek">Babadzhanov, A.S., et. al. "Chemical Composition of Spirulina Platensis Cultivated in Uzbekistan." Chemistry of Natural Compounds. 40, 3, 2004.</ref>

Essential Fatty Acids

Image:Spirulina tablets.jpg

Spirulina is rich in gamma-linolenic acid (GLA). However, one needs to use 5-10 grams of dried spirulina to obtain similar quantities as that found in 1000 mg evening primrose oil or 500 mg borage oil. Spirulina also provides small quantities of other fatty acids such as alpha-linolenic acid (ALA), linoleic acid (LA), stearidonic acid (SDA), eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), and arachidonic acid (AA). <ref name="uzbek">Babadzhanov, A.S., et. al. "Chemical Composition of Spirulina Platensis Cultivated in Uzbekistan." Chemistry of Natural Compounds. 40, 3, 2004.</ref><ref name="biomass">Tokusoglu, O., Unal, M.K. "Biomass Nutrient Profiles of Three Microalgae: Spirulina platensis, Chlorella vulgaris, and Isochrisis galbana." Journal of Food Science. 68, 4, 2003.</ref>

Vitamins
Spirulina contains most vitamins in high quantities, but are richest in vitamin A (in the form of beta-carotene), vitamin D, vitamin K, vitamin B1, vitamin B2 and vitamin B12. <ref name="uzbek">Babadzhanov, A.S., et. al. "Chemical Composition of Spirulina Platensis Cultivated in Uzbekistan." Chemistry of Natural Compounds. 40, 3, 2004.</ref><ref name="biomass">Tokusoglu, O., Unal, M.K. "Biomass Nutrient Profiles of Three Microalgae: Spirulina platensis, Chlorella vulgaris, and Isochrisis galbana." Journal of Food Science. 68, 4, 2003.</ref> The bioavailability of vitamin B12 in Spirulina is in dispute. Several biological assays have been used to verify the presence of vitamin B12. <Ref>Variations in the Growth Response of Four Different Vitamin B12 Assay Microorganisms to the Same Tissue and Standard Preparations. Elizabeth A. Cook and Lillian N. Ellis. Appl Microbiol. 1968 December; 16(12): 1831–1840.</Ref> The most popular is the US Pharmacopeia method using the Lactobacillus leichmannii assay. Studies using this method have shown Spirulina to be a minimal source of bioavailable vitamin B12. <Ref>Watanabe, F. et al. "Characterization and bioavailability of vitamin B12-compounds from edible algae." Journal of nutritional science and vitaminology, Oct. 2002, 48 (5):325-331.</Ref> However, this assay does not actually differentiate between human bioavailable and non-human bioavailable B12. A more recently developed assay performed by a grower of spirulina has shown Spirulina to be a significant source of bioavailable B12. <Ref>Spirulina Pacifica® as a Source of Cobalamin Vitamin B-12. Jan. 1999.</Ref>

Minerals
Dried spirulina has a very high concentration of mineral ash. It is a very rich source of iron, and also contains many other minerals such as manganese, chromium, selenium, magnesium, calcium and phosphorus. Some spirulina brands add zinc during the cultivation period, so that the supplement ends up very rich in this mineral. It should be noted, that even though spirulina is rich in many minerals, the dosages used for supplementation - 0.5-10 grams daily - provides relatively little of most of those minerals compared to the RDAs. Using more than 10 grams of dried spirulina could in time lead to iron and vitamin D toxicity.<ref name="uzbek">Babadzhanov, A.S., et. al. "Chemical Composition of Spirulina Platensis Cultivated in Uzbekistan." Chemistry of Natural Compounds. 40, 3, 2004.</ref><ref name="biomass">Tokusoglu, O., Unal, M.K. "Biomass Nutrient Profiles of Three Microalgae: Spirulina platensis, Chlorella vulgaris, and Isochrisis galbana." Journal of Food Science. 68, 4, 2003.</ref>

Photosynthetic Pigments
Spirulina contains many pigments including chlorophyll-a, xanthophyll, beta-carotene, echinenone, myxoxanthophyll, zeaxanthin, canthaxanthin, diatoxanthin, 3'-hydroxyechinenone, beta-cryptoxanthin, oscillaxanthin, plus the phycobiliproteins c-phycocyanin and allophycocyanin. <ref name="vonshak">Vonshak, A. (ed.). Spirulina platensis (Arthrospira): Physiology, Cell-biology and Biotechnology. London: Taylor & Francis, 1997.</ref>

[edit] Evidence of Health and Healing Effects

Advocates frequently overstate their claims of Spirulina's health and healing properties, though often there is research upon which such claims are based. Conversely, health food detractors often dismiss all such claims without acknowledging existing research. Two online publications exemplify these opposing positions, respectively: Superfoods For Optimum Health: Chlorella and Spirulina, and Wellness Letter on Blue Green Algae. Many positive claims are based on research done on individual nutrients that Spirulina contains, such as GLA, various antioxidants, etc., rather than on direct research using Spirulina. What follows is research on the health and healing effects of Spirulina. In vitro research may suggest the possibility of similar results in humans, but cannot be taken as proof of human effects. Animal research provides stronger evidence, but again, does not represent proof of similar effects in humans. The results of Clinical trials are the best evidence available.

In Vitro Research
Spirulina extract inhibits HIV replication in human T-cells, peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC), and Langerhans cells. <ref>Ayehunie, S. et. al. "Inhibition of HIV-1 Replication by an Aqueous Extract of Spirulina platensis (Arthrospira platensis)." JAIDS: Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes & Human Retrovirology. 18, 1, May 1998: 7-12.</ref>

Animal Research
Spirulina helps prevent heart damage caused by chemotherapy using Doxorubicin, without interfering with its anti-tumor activity. <ref> Khan, M., et. al. "Protective effect of Spirulina against doxorubicin-induced cardiotoxicity." Phytotherapy Research. 2005 Dec;19(12):1030-7.</ref> Spirulina reduces the severity of strokes and improves recovery of movement after a stroke; <ref>Wang, Y., et. al. "Dietary supplementation with blueberries, spinach, or spirulina reduces ischemic brain damage." Experimental Neurology. May, 2005 ;193(1):75-84.</ref> reverses age-related declines in memory and learning; <ref> Gemma, C., et. al. "Diets enriched in foods with high antioxidant activity reverse age-induced decreases in cerebellar beta-adrenergic function and increases in proinflammatory cytokines." Experimental Neurology. July 15, 2002; 22(14):6114-20.</ref> and prevents and treats hay fever. <ref>Chen, LL, et. al. "Experimental study of spirulina platensis in treating allergic rhinitis in rats." 中南大学学报(医学版) = Journal of Central South University (Medical Sciences). Feb. 2005. 30(1):96-8.</ref>

Clinical Trials
Spirulina is effective for the clinical improvement of melanosis and keratosis due to chronic arsenic poisoning; <Ref>Mir Misbahuddin, AZM Maidul Islam, Salamat Khandker, Ifthaker-Al-Mahmud, Nazrul Islam and Anjumanara. Efficacy of spirulina extract plus zinc in patients of chronic arsenic poisoning: a randomized placebo-controlled study.(Risk factors ). Journal of Toxicology: Clinical Toxicology. 44.2 (March 2006): p135(7).</Ref> improves weight-gain and corrects anemia in both HIV-infected and HIV-negative undernourished children; <ref>Simpore, J., et. al. "Nutrition Rehabilitation of HIV-Infected and HIV-Negative Undernourished Children Utilizing Spirulina." Annals of Nutrition & Metabolism. 49, 2005: 373-380.</ref> and protects against hay fever. <ref>Mao, TK, et. al. "Effects of a Spirulina-based dietary supplement on cytokine production from allergic rhinitis patients." Journal of Medicinal Food. Spring 2005;8(1):27-30.</ref>