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Stephen Jay Gould

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Stephen Jay Gould

Stephen Jay Gould (September 10, 1941 – May 20, 2002) was an American paleontologist, evolutionary biologist, and historian of science. He was also one of the most influential and widely read writers of popular science of his generation, leading many commentators to call him "America's unofficial evolutionist laureate." Gould spent most of his career teaching at Harvard University and working at the American Museum of Natural History in New York.

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[edit] Personal life

Gould was born and raised in the Queens borough of New York City, New York. His father Leonard was a court stenographer, and his mother Eleanor was an artist. When Gould was five years old, his father took him to the Hall of Dinosaurs in the American Museum of Natural History, where he first met Tyrannosaurus rex. "I had no idea there were such things—I was awestruck," Gould once recalled.<ref> Michelle Green (1986) "Stephen Jay Gould: driven by a hunger to learn and to write" People Weekly June 2. </ref> In that moment he decided to become a paleontologist.

Raised in a nominally Jewish home, Gould did not formally practice organized religion and preferred to be called an agnostic.<ref>Stephen Jay Gould, Nonoverlapping Magisteria Natural History 106 (March 1997): pp. 16, 61. </ref> Politically, though he "had been brought up by a Marxist father," he is quoted as saying that his father's politics were "very different" from his own.<ref> 

    Gould (2002), p. 1018. Online here. Gould served on the advisory boards of the journal Rethinking Marxism
    and the Brecht Forum. The Brecht Forum is a sponsor of the New York Marxist School.
    In addition, the Encyclopedia of the American Left wrote that Gould was one
    of the "few scientists [who] have emerged as major public allies of the left" and
    as "perhaps the most formidable example of a supportive presence at
    left events and for left causes."

</ref> Throughout his career and writings he spoke out against cultural oppression in all its forms, especially what he saw as pseudoscience in the service of racism and sexism. In the early 1970s Gould joined a group called "Science for the People," which was a left-wing organization that emerged from the antiwar movement.

Gould was twice married. His first marriage, to Deborah Lee in 1965 ended in divorce. His second marriage was to artist Rhonda Roland Shearer in 1995. Gould had two children, Jesse and Ethan, by his first marriage, and two stepchildren, Jade and London, by his second.

In July 1982 Gould was diagnosed with abdominal mesothelioma, an often terminal form of cancer affecting the abdominal lining (which is sometimes caused by asbestos exposure). After a difficult recovery, Gould published a column for Discover magazine, titled "The Median Isn't the Message," in which he discusses his discovery that mesothelioma patients had a median lifespan of only eight months after diagnosis. He then describes the true significance behind this number, and his relief upon realizing that statistics are just useful abstractions, not destiny. After an experimental treatment of radiation, chemotherapy, and surgery, Gould lived for another twenty years, and his column became a source of comfort for many cancer patients.

Gould was also an advocate for medical marijuana. During his bout with abdominal mesothelioma, he smoked the illegal drug to alleviate the nausea associated with his cancer treatments. According to Gould, his use of marijuana had the "most important effect" on his eventual recovery.<ref>Stephen Jay Gould quoted in Lester Grinspoon, Marihuana, The Forbidden Medicine, New Haven: Yale University Press, 1993, pp. 39-41.</ref> In 1998 he testified in the case of Jim Wakeford, a Canadian medical-marijuana user and activist.

Stephen Jay Gould died on May 20, 2002 from a metastatic adenocarcinoma of the lung (a form of lung cancer, which had spread to his brain). This cancer was unrelated to his abdominal mesothelioma, from which he had fully recovered twenty years earlier. He died in his home "in a bed set up in the library of his Soho loft, surrounded by his wife Rhonda, his mother Eleanor, and the many books he loved."<ref> 

    Jill Krementz (2002),
    "Jill Krementz Photo Journal",
    New York Social Diary June 2.

</ref> <ref name=HGdies> 

    The Harvard Gazette, ["http://www.news.harvard.edu/gazette/2002/05.16/99-gould.html Paleontologist, author Gould dies at 60"]
    May 20, 2002.

</ref>

[edit] Gould as a scientist

Gould began his higher education at Antioch College, a distinguished liberal arts school in Ohio, graduating with a degree in geology in 1963. During this time he also studied abroad at the University of Leeds in the United Kingdom.<ref>Masha Etkin (2002) "A Tribute to Stephen Jay Gould '63" Antiochian, Winter edition.</ref> After completing his graduate work at Columbia University in 1967 under the guidance of Norman Newell, he was immediately hired by Harvard University where he worked until the end of his life (1967-2002). In 1973 Harvard promoted him to Professor of Geology and Curator of Invertebrate Paleontology at the institution's Museum of Comparative Zoology, and in 1982 he was awarded the title of Alexander Agassiz Professor of Zoology. In 1983 he was awarded fellowship into the American Association for the Advancement of Science, where he later served as president (1999-2001). The AAAS news release cited his "numerous contributions to both scientific progress and the public understanding of science." He also served as president of the Paleontological Society (1985-1986) and the Society for the Study of Evolution (1990-1991). In 1989 Gould was elected into the body of the National Academy of Sciences. He was also Vincent Astor Visiting Research Professor of Biology at New York University from 1996-2002.

Most of Gould's empirical research was on land snails. His early work was on the Bermudian genus Poecilozonites, while his later work concentrated on the West Indian genus Cerion.

Early in his career Gould developed with Niles Eldredge the theory of punctuated equilibrium, where evolutionary change occurs relatively rapidly to comparatively longer periods of evolutionary stability. According to Gould, punctuated equilibrium revised a key pillar "in the central logic of Darwinian theory."<ref>Stephen Jay Gould (2002) pp. 15-21.</ref> Some evolutionary biologists have argued that while punctuated equilibrium was "of great interest to biology,"<ref>Richard Dawkins (1982) p. 101.</ref> it merely modified neo-Darwinism in a manner which was fully compatible with what had been known before.<ref>John Maynard Smith (1984).</ref> Others however emphasized its theoretical novelty, and argued that evolutionary stasis had been "unexpected by most evolutionary biologists"<ref>Ernst Mayr (1992) p. 33.</ref> and "had a major impact on paleontology and evolutionary biology."<ref>ibid. p. 24.</ref>

In addition to his work on punctuated equilibrium and evolutionary developmental biology, Gould championed biological constraints and other non-selectionist forces in evolution. With Richard Lewontin he wrote an influential 1979 paper critical of the overuse of adaptation in biology.<ref>Stephen Jay Gould and Richard C. Lewontin (1979). Gould wrote about the background behind this paper, as well as the motivations underlying it, in his essay "The Pattern of Life's History" written for John Brockman's volume The Third Culture, pp. 55-56.</ref> Their paper introduced the evolutionary concept spandrel, borrowed from the architectural term "spandrel". Gould and Lewontin used it to mean a feature of an organism that exists as a necessary consequence of other features and not built directly, piece by piece, by natural selection.<ref>Examples include the "masculinized genitalia in female hyenas, exaptive use of an umbilicus as a brooding chamber by snails, the shoulder hump of the giant Irish deer, and several key features of human mentality." (Gould 1997c)</ref> The relative frequency of spandrels, so defined, versus adaptive features in nature, remains a controversial topic in evolutionary biology.

Gould is also one of the most highly cited scientists in the field of evolutionary theory. His 1979 "spandrels" paper has been cited more than 1,600 times. In Palaeobiology—the flagship journal of his own speciality—only Charles Darwin and G.G. Simpson have been cited more often.<ref>Donald Prothero "Evolution Revolution: Paleontology, History, Biography" Festschrift lecture for Stephen Jay Gould, 2000.</ref> Gould was also a considerably respected historian of science. Historian Ronald Numbers has been quoted as saying: "I can't say much about Gould's strengths as a scientist, but for a long time I've regarded him as the second most influential historian of science (next to Thomas Kuhn)."<ref>Michael Shermer (2002): 492.</ref>

Shortly before his death, Gould published a long treatise recapitulating his version of modern evolutionary theory, written primarily for the technical audience of evolutionary biologists: The Structure of Evolutionary Theory (2002).

[edit] Gould as a public figure

Gould became widely known through his popular science essays in Natural History magazine and his best-selling books on evolution. Many of his essays were reprinted in collected volumes, such as Ever Since Darwin and The Panda's Thumb, while his popular treatises included books such as The Mismeasure of Man, Wonderful Life and Full House.

Gould was a passionate advocate of evolutionary theory and wrote prolifically on the subject, trying to communicate his understanding of contemporary evolutionary biology to a wide audience. A recurring theme in his writings is the history and development of evolutionary, and pre-evolutionary, thought. He was also an enthusiastic baseball fan and made frequent references to the sport in his essays.<ref>Including enough essays to publish a posthumous anthology Triumph and Tragedy in Mudville. See his essays [http://www.nybooks.com/articles/4337 "Thcience Studies." Shermer quotes historian of science Ronald Numbers as saying: "I can't say much about Gould's strengths as a scientist, but for a long time I've regarded him as the second most influential historian of science (next to Thomas Kuhn)." (p. 492). Essay analysis from histogram p. 505.</ref>

Although a proud Darwinist, his emphasis was less gradualist and reductionist than most neo-Darwinists. He also opposed many aspects of sociobiology and its intellectual descendant evolutionary psychology. He spent much of his time fighting against creationism (and the related constructs Creation Science and Intelligent Design) and other forms of pseudoscience. Most notably, Gould provided expert testimony against the equal-time creationism law in McLean v. Arkansas. Gould used the term "Non-Overlapping Magisteria" (NOMA) to describe how, in his view, science and religion could not comment on each other's realm.<ref>Gould went on to develop this idea in some detail, particularly in the books Rocks of Ages (1999) and The Hedgehog, the Fox, and the Magister's Pox (2003). In a 1982 essay for Natural History Gould writes: "Our failure to discern a universal good does not record any lack of insight or ingenuity, but merely demonstrates that nature contains no moral messages framed in human terms. Morality is a subject for philosophers, theologians, students of the humanities, indeed for all thinking people. The answers will not be read passively from nature; they do not, and cannot, arise from the data of science. The factual state of the world does not teach us how we, with our powers for good and evil, should alter or preserve it in the most ethical manner." Stephen Jay Gould, "Nonmoral Nature" Natural History 91 (February): 19-26; and reprinted in Hen's Teeth and Horse's Toes. New York: W.W. Norton, 1983, pp. 42-43.</ref>. Gould had become a noted public face of science, and often appeared on television. He once voiced a cartoon version of himself on an episode of The Simpsons, a widely popular animated television program. The Simpsons also paid tribute to him after his death. In an episode entitled Papa's Got a Brand New Badge, at the beginning of the credits, the message "Dedicated to the memory of Stephen Jay Gould" appears with a picture from the episode he was in. In addition, he is one of several luminaries who are heroes of the climax of the science fiction novel Ancient Shores.

Gould was also featured prominently as a guest in Ken Burns' PBS documentary, Baseball.

He was on the Board of Advisors to the influencial Children's Television Workshop television show, 3-2-1 Contact.

[edit] Controversies

Gould received many accolades for his scholarly work<ref name=HGdies> 

    The Harvard Gazette, "Paleontologist, author Gould dies at 60," May 20, 2002.</ref>
and popular expositions of natural history,<ref>Michael Shermer (2002) "This View of Science" Social Studies of Science 32 (August): 518.
Awards include a National Book Award for The Panda’s Thumb, a National Book Critics Circle Award for The Mismeasure of Man, the Phi Beta Kappa Book Award for Hen’s Teeth and Horse’s Toes, and a Pulitzer Prize Finalist for Wonderful Life, on which Gould commented ‘close but, as they say, no cigar’. Forty-four honorary degrees and 66 major fellowships, medals, and awards bear witness to the depth and scope of his accomplishments in both the sciences and humanities: Member of the National Academy of Sciences, President and Fellow of AAAS, MacArthur Foundation ‘genius’ Fellowship (in the first group of awardees), Humanist Laureate from the Academy of Humanism, Fellow of the Linnean Society of London, Fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, Fellow of the European Union of Geosciences, Associate of the Muséum National D’Histoire Naturelle Paris, the Schuchert Award for excellence in paleontological research, Scientist of the Year from Discover magazine, the Silver Medal from the Zoological Society of London, the Gold Medal for Service to Zoology from the Linnean Society of London, the Edinburgh Medal from the City of Edinburgh, the Britannica Award and Gold Medal for dissemination of public knowledge, Public Service Award from the Geological Society of America, Anthropology in Media Award from the American Anthropological Association, Distinguished Service Award from the National Association of Biology Teachers, Distinguished Scientist Award from UCLA, the Randi Award for Skeptic of the Year from the Skeptics Society, and a Festschrift in his honour at Caltech.
</ref> but was criticized by some in the biological community who felt his public presentations were, in various respects, out of step with mainstream evolutionary theory.<ref>Leda Cosmides and John Tooby (1997) write:
John Maynard Smith, one of the world's leading evolutionary biologists, recently summarized in the NYRB the sharply conflicting assessments of Stephen Jay Gould: "Because of the excellence of his essays, he has come to be seen by non-biologists as the preeminent evolutionary theorist. In contrast, the evolutionary biologists with whom I have discussed his work tend to see him as a man whose ideas are so confused as to be hardly worth bothering with, but as one who should not be publicly criticized because he is at least on our side against the creationists." (NYRB, Nov. 30th 1995, p. 46). No one can take any pleasure in the evident pain Gould is experiencing now that his actual standing within the community of professional evolutionary biologists is finally becoming more widely known. . . But as Maynard Smith points out, more is at stake. Gould "is giving non-biologists a largely false picture of the state of evolutionary theory"—or as Ernst Mayr says of Gould and his small group of allies—they "quite conspicuously misrepresent the views of [biology's] leading spokesmen." Indeed, although Gould characterizes his critics as "anonymous" and "a tiny coterie," nearly every major evolutionary biologist of our era has weighed in in a vain attempt to correct the tangle of confusions that the higher profile Gould has inundated the intellectual world with.* The point is not that Gould is the object of some criticism—so properly are we all—it is that his reputation as a credible and balanced authority about evolutionary biology is non-existent among those who are in a professional position to know. *These include Ernst Mayr, John Maynard Smith, George Williams, Bill Hamilton, Richard Dawkins, E.O. Wilson, Tim Clutton-Brock, Paul Harvey, Brian Charlesworth, Jerry Coyne, Robert Trivers, John Alcock, Randy Thornhill, and many others.
It should be noted that Ernst Mayr in this quotation is not speaking of Gould in particular, and does not mention him by name, but is speaking of many critics of the Neo-Darwinian Synthesis generally. Some of the names Tooby and Cosmides cite are quite debatable—Mayr, Williams, Hamilton, Dawkins, Wilson, Coyne, and Trivers, for example—debates over issues of theory cannot be taken as an indication of respective ability and scholarship. In reference to Maynard Smith, Gould writes (1997):
A false fact can be refuted, a false argument exposed; but how can one respond to a purely ad hominem attack? This harder, and altogether more discouraging, task may best be achieved by exposing internal inconsistency and unfairness of rhetoric. . . . It seems futile to reply to an attack so empty of content, and based only on comments by anonymous critics . . . Instead of responding to Maynard Smith's attack against my integrity and scholarship, citing people unknown and with arguments unmentioned, let me, instead, merely remind him of the blatant inconsistency between his admirable past and lamentable present. Some sixteen years ago he wrote a highly critical but wonderfully supportive review of my early book of essays, The Panda's Thumb, stating: "I hope it will be obvious that my wish to argue with Gould is a compliment, not a criticism." He then attended my series of Tanner Lectures at Cambridge in 1984 and wrote in a report for Nature, and under the remarkable title "Paleontology at the High Table," the kindest and most supportive critical commentary I have ever received. He argued that the work of a small group of American paleobiologists had brought the entire subject back to theoretical centrality within the evolutionary sciences. . . . Most remarkably of all, he then reviewed two books on dinosaurs for this journal and devoted more than half his space (much to the distress, I am sure, of the authors of the books supposedly under review) to a trenchant critique of my views on adaptation. . . . So we face the enigma of a man who has written numerous articles, amounting to tens of thousands of words, about my work—always strongly and incisively critical, always richly informed (and always, I might add, enormously appreciated by me). But now Maynard Smith needs to canvass unnamed colleagues to find out that my ideas are "hardly worth bothering with." He really ought to be asking himself why he has been bothering about my work so intensely, and for so many years. Why this dramatic change?
</ref> The public debates between those that agreed with Gould and those that criticized him have been so quarrelsome that they have been dubbed "The Darwin Wars" by several commentators.<ref>See Andrew Brown (1999), Richard Morris (2001), and Steve Rose (2002).</ref>

The eminent John Maynard Smith was among Gould's strongest critics. Maynard Smith thought that Gould trivialized the role of adaptation, and criticised Gould's periodic invocation of large scale mutations.<ref>John Maynard Smith (1981a) and (1981b).</ref> In a recent review of Daniel Dennett's book Darwin's Dangerous Idea, Maynard Smith wrote that Gould "is giving non-biologists a largely false picture of the state of evolutionary theory."<ref>John Maynard Smith (1995); also quoted in John Tooby and Leda Cosmides (1997).</ref> But Maynard Smith has not been consistently negative, writing in a review of The Panda's Thumb that often "he infuriates me, but I hope he will go right on writing essays like these."<ref>John Maynard Smith (1981b)</ref> Maynard Smith was also among those who welcomed Gould's reinvigoration of evolutionary paleontology.<ref>John Maynard Smith (1984).</ref>

One reason for such criticism was that Gould appeared to be presenting his ideas as a revolutionary way of understanding evolution, which relegated natural selection to a much less important position. As a result, many non-specialists inferred from his early writings that Darwinian explanations had been proven to be unscientific (which Gould never wanted to imply). His works were sometimes used out of context as a "proof" that scientists no longer understood how organisms evolved, giving creationists ammunition in their battle against evolutionary theory.<ref>Robert Wright (1999).</ref>Gould himself corrected some of these misinterpretations and distortions of his writings in later works.<ref>Stephen Jay Gould, "Evolution as fact and theory" Discover 2 (May 1981): 34-37.</ref>.

Gould also had a long-running feud with E. O. Wilson, Richard Dawkins and other evolutionary biologists over sociobiology and its descendant evolutionary psychology, which Gould strongly opposed but Dawkins, Daniel Dennett, Steven Pinker and others strongly advocated.<ref>But Stephen Jay Gould (1980b) also writes: "Sociobiologists have broadened their range of selective stories by invoking concepts of inclusive fitness and kin selection to solve (successfully I think) the vexatious problem of altruism—previously the greatest stumbling block to a Darwinian theory of social behavior. . . . Here sociobiology has had and will continue to have success. And here I wish it well. For it represents an extension of basic Darwinism to a realm where it should apply." [1]</ref> Gould and Dawkins also disagreed over the importance of gene selection in evolution: Dawkins argued that all evolution is ultimately caused by gene competition, while Gould advocated the importance of higher-level competition including, but certainly not limited to, species selection. Strong criticism of Gould can be found in Dawkins' The Blind Watchmaker and Dennett's Darwin's Dangerous Idea. Dennett's criticism has tended to be harsher, while Dawkins praises Gould in evolutionary topics other than those of contention. Pinker accuses Gould, Lewontin and other opponents of evolutionary psychology of being "radical scientists," whose stance on human nature is influenced by politics rather than science.<ref>Steven Pinker (2002) Ch. 6: "Political Scientists."</ref> Gould countered that sociobiologists and evolutionary psychologists are often heavily influenced, perhaps unconsciously, by their own prejudices and interests.<ref>Stephen Jay Gould (1997b).</ref>.

Gould's interpretation of the Cambrian Burgess Shale fossils in his book Wonderful Life was criticized by Simon Conway Morris in his 1998 book The Crucible Of Creation.<ref>Gould and Conway Morris debated the issue in a piece titled "Showdown on the Burgess Shale" published in Nat. Hist. 107 (10): 48-55.</ref> Gould had emphasized the "weirdness" of the Burgess Shale fauna, and the role of unpredictable, contingent phenomena in determining which members of this fauna survived and flourished. Conway Morris stressed the phylogenetic linkages between the Burgess Shale forms and modern taxa, particularly, the importance of convergent evolution in producing general predictable responses to similar environmental circumstances. Paleontologist Richard Fortey has noted that prior to the release of Wonderful Life, Conway Morris shared many of Gould's sentiments and views. It was only after publication of Wonderful Life that Conway Morris revised his interpretation and adopted a more progressive stance towards the history of life.<ref>Richard Fortey (1998), "Shock Lobsters" (webpage), London Review of Books, Vol. 20, October 1.</ref>

[edit] Non-Overlapping Magisteria (NOMA)

In his book Rocks of Ages Gould put forward what he described as "a blessedly simple and entirely conventional resolution to ... the supposed conflict between science and religion" <ref> Rocks of Ages p3</ref> He defines the term magisterium as "a domain where one form of teaching holds the appropriate tools for meaningful discourse and resolution" <ref> ibid. p 5</ref> and the NOMA principle is "the magisterium of science covers the empirical realm: what the Universe is made of (fact) and why does it work in this way (theory). The magisterium of religion extends over questions of ultimate meaning and moral value. These two magisteria do not overlap, nor do they encompass all inquiry (consider, for example, the magisterium of art and the meaning of beauty)." <ref> ibid. p6 </ref>

In his view, "Science and religion do not glower at each other ... [they] interdigitate in patterns of complex fingering, and at every fractal scale of self-similarity" <ref> ibid. p65 </ref>. He suggests, with examples, that "NOMA enjoys strong and fully explicit support, even from the primary cultural stereotypes of hard-line traditionalism" and that it is "a sound position of general consensus, established by long struggle among people of goodwill in both magisteria" <ref> ibid. pp69-70</ref>

A similar position has been adopted by the National Academy of Sciences. Its publication Science and Creationism: A View from the National Academy of Sciences, Second Edition (1999) states that "Scientists, like many others, are touched with awe at the order and complexity of nature. Indeed, many scientists are deeply religious. But science and religion occupy two separate realms of human experience. Demanding that they be combined detracts from the glory of each." <ref> Statement from the NAS online here</ref> This was subsequently signed by then-President Bruce Alberts.

[edit] Criticism

Richard Dawkins in his book The God Delusion, is critical of Gould’s concept of non-overlapping magisteria as Dawkins argues that the concept cannot be used to defend theologians from criticism. Dawkins presents that "the God Hypothesis", which he defines as "there exists a super-human, supernatural intelligence who deliberately designed and created the universe and everything in it, including us" is a scientific hypothesis about the universe and one that should be treated with as much scepticism as any other theory.

[edit] Mismeasure of Man

Main article: The Mismeasure of Man

Stephen Jay Gould was also the author of The Mismeasure of Man (1981), a history and skeptical inquiry of psychometrics and intelligence testing. Gould investigated many of the techniques of nineteenth century craniometry, as well as modern-day psychological testing—and claimed they developed unnecessarily from an unfounded faith in biological determinism. The Mismeasure of Man has generated perhaps the most controversy of all Gould's books, and has been subject to widespread praise (by skeptics) and extensive criticism (by psychologists)—including claims by some scientists that Gould had misrepresented their work.<ref>Arthur Jensen (1982).</ref>

[edit] Books

[edit] End material

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[edit] Notes

<references/>

[edit] References

  • Gould, S.J. (1980a) "Is a new and general theory of evolution emerging?" Paleobiology 6: 119-130.
  • Gould, S.J. (1980b) "Sociobiology and the theory of natural selection." In G. W. Barlow and J. Silverberg, eds., Sociobiology: Beyond Nature/Nurture? Boulder CO: Westview Press, pp. 257-269.
  • Gould, S.J. (1987) "The limits of adaptation: Is language a spandrel of the human brain?" Paper presented to the Cognitive Science Seminar, Centre for Cognitive Science, MIT.
  • Gould, S.J. (1992) "The confusion over evolution" New York Review of Books, Nov. 19, pp. 39-54.
  • Gould, S.J. (1997a) "Darwinian Fundamentalism" New York Review of Books, June 12, pp. 34-37.
  • Gould, S.J. (1997b) "Evolution: The Pleasures of Pluralism" New York Review of Books, June 26, pp. 47-52.
  • Gould, S.J. (1997c) "The Exaptive Excellence of Spandrels as a Term and Prototype" Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 94: 10750-55.
  • Gould, S.J. (2002) The Structure of Evolutionary Theory. Cambridge MA: Harvard University Press.

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