Syncretism

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For the linguistic term, see syncretism (linguistics).

Syncretism is the attempt to reconcile disparate, even opposing, beliefs and to meld practices of various schools of thought. It is especially associated with the attempt to merge and analogize several originally discrete traditions, especially in the theology and mythology of religion, and thus assert an underlying unity.

Syncretism is also common in literature, music, the representational arts and other expressions of culture. (Compare the concept of eclecticism.) Syncretism may occur in architecture, as well. There also exist syncretic politics, although in political classification the term has a somewhat different meaning.

1 Origin of the word
2 Social and political roles
3 Religious syncretism
4 Syncretism in linguistics
5 Syncretism in cultures and societies
- 5.1 Syncretism in the Enlightenment
- 5.2 Modern syncretic social and cultural movements
6 Syncretism in fiction
7 External links

[edit] Origin of the word

The word Syncretism is first attested in English in 1618 and is derived from modern Latin syncretismus, drawing on Greek συvκρητισμός (synkretismos), meaning "a union of communities".

The word occurs in Plutarch's (1st century AD) essay on "Fraternal Love" in his Moralia (2.490b). He cites the example of the Cretans who were reconciliated in their differences and came together in alliance when faced with external dangers. "And that is their so-called Syncretism." The word is a compound of syn "together" and a second element of uncertain origin. Rather than directly referring to Crete, it could be connected with kretismos "a lie", from kretizein "to lie like a Cretan", or alternatively it could be connected to kerannumi "to mix", krasis "mixture" on the analogy of accretion or concrete.

The Latin word, used in the modern sense, was probably coined by Erasmus in his Adagia ("Adages"), published in the winter of 1517–1518, to designate the coherence of dissenters in spite of their difference of theological opinions. In a letter to Melancthon, April 22, 1519, Erasmus specifically adduced the Cretans of Plutarch, an example of his adage "Concord is a mighty rampart."

[edit] Social and political roles

Overt syncretism in folk belief is a sign of cultural acceptance of an alien or previous tradition, but the "other" cult may survive or infiltrate without authorized syncresis nevertheless. An example is the fact that some Conversos developed a sort of cult for martyrs who were victims of the Spanish Inquisition, thus incorporating elements of Catholicism while resisting it.

Some religious movements have embraced overt syncretism, such as the case of the adoption of Shinto elements into Buddhism. Others have strongly rejected it as devaluing precious and genuine distinctions; examples of this includes post-Exile Judaism and Islamism.

Syncretism tends to facilitate coexistence and constructive interaction between different cultures (intercultural competence), a factor that has recommended it to rulers of multi-ethnic realms. Conversely the rejection of syncretism, usually in the name of "piety" and "orthodoxy", helps generate and authorize a sense of cultural unity.

[edit] Religious syncretism

Religious syncretism is the blending of two or more religious belief systems into a new system, or the incorporation into a religious tradition of beliefs from unrelated traditions. This can occur for many reasons, and the latter is quite common in areas where multiple religious traditions exist in close proximity and are active in the culture.

Religions may have syncretic elements to their beliefs or history, but applying the label is often unwelcome by adherents of so-labeled systems, especially those who belong to so-called "revealed" religious systems, such as the Abrahamic religions, or any system that is exclusivist in its approach. Syncretism is sometimes seen by such adherents as being a betrayal of a pure truth. By this reasoning, adding an incompatible belief corrupts the original religion, rendering it no longer true. Indeed, syncretism is sometimes used as an epithet, a charge implying that those who are seeking to incorporate a new view, belief, or practice into a religious system are, in fact, distorting it. Non-exclusivist systems of belief, on the other hand, may feel quite free to incorporate other traditions into their own.

In modern secular society, religions are sometimes created syncretically as a mechanism to reduce inter-religious tension and enmity, often with the effect of offending the original religions in question. Such religions, however, do maintain some appeal to a less exclusivist audience. Some of these are described in individual sections below.

[edit] Syncretism in Ancient Greece

Syncretism was an essential feature of Greek paganism. Hellenistic culture in the age that followed Alexander the Great was itself syncretic, essentially a blend of Persian, Anatolian, Egyptian (and eventually Etruscan-Roman) elements within a Hellenic overall formula. The Egyptian god Amun developed as the Hellenized Zeus Ammon after Alexander the Great went into the desert to seek out Amun's oracle at Siwa.

These identifications derive from interpretatio graeca, the Hellenic habit of identifying gods of disparate mythologies with their own. When the proto-Greeks whose language would evolve into Greek first arrived in the Aegean and mainland Greece early in the 2nd millennium BCE, they found localized nymphs and divinities already connected with every important feature of the landscape: mountain, grove, cave and spring all had their locally-venerated deity. The countless epithets of the Olympian gods reflect this syncretic character. "Zeus Molossos", as worshiped only at Dodona, is "the god identical to Zeus as worshiped by the Molossians at Dodona." Much apparently arbitrary and trivial mythic fabling is the result of later mythographers' attempts to explain these obscure epithets.

[edit] Syncretism in Rome

The Romans, identifying themselves as common heirs to a very similar civilization, identified Greek deities with similar figures in the Etruscan-Roman tradition, though cult practices were not usually copied. (For details, see Similarities between Roman, Greek, and Etruscan mythologies.) Syncretic gods of the Hellenistic period found also wide favor in Rome: Serapis, Isis, Mithras are syncretic deities. Cybele, as she was worshiped in Rome, was essentially a syncretic goddess. The Greek god Dionysus was imported into Rome as Bacchus, and the Anatolian Sabazios was converted to the Roman Sabazius.

The correspondences varied: Jupiter is perhaps a better match for Zeus than the rural huntress Diana is for the feared Artemis. Ares is not quite Mars. The Anatolian goddess Cybele was physically imported to Rome from her Anatolian cult center Pessinos in the original aniconic archaic stone idol; she was identified in Rome as Magna Mater and was given a matronly, iconic image that had been developed in Hellenistic Pergamum.

Likewise, when the Romans encountered Celts and Teutons, they mingled these Northern gods with their own, creating Apollo Sucellos (Apollo the Good Smiter) and Mars Thingsus (Mars of the war-assembly), among many others. In the Germania, the Roman historian Tacitus speaks of Teutonic worshippers of Hercules and Mercury; most modern scholars conclude that Hercules was likely Thor, and Mercury was Odin.

[edit] Syncretism in Christianity

Nascent Christianity appears to have incorporated many European Pagan cultural elements, "baptizing" or "Christianizing" them to conform with Christian belief and principles, at least partially, through discarding theologically or morally incompatible elements. One example of this is the strong connection between the thought of St. Augustine and Neoplatonic thought, and St. Thomas Aquinas' many citations of "The Philosopher" by Aristotle. Many scholars agree to this syncretism in principle, though any specific example is likely to be labeled "controversial". Open Theists (a subset of Protestant Evangelicals) assert that Christianity by the 3rd and 4th centuries had incorporated Greek Philosophy into its understanding of God.

"Syncretism" was not on the table when Christianity split into eastern and western rites during the Great Schism. It was invoked however with the rifts of the Protestant Reformation, with Desiderius Erasmus's readings of Plutarch. In 1615 David Pareus of Heidelberg urged Christians to a "pious syncretism"^{[citation needed]} in opposing the Antichrist, but few 17th century Protestants discussed the compromises that might affect a reconciliation with the Catholic Church: the Lutheran Georg Calisen "Calixtus" (1586-1656) of Helmstedt School was opposed by Johann Hülsemann, Johann Georg Dorsche and Abraham Calovius (1612-1685) for his "syncretism".[1] (See: Syncretistic Strife)

The modern celebrations of Christmas (as celebrated in the northern European tradition, originating from Pagan Yule holidays), Easter and Halloween are examples of relatively late Christian syncretism. Earlier, the elevation of Christmas as an important holiday largely grew out of a need to replace the Saturnalia, a popular December festival of the Roman Empire. Roman Catholicism in Central and South America has also integrated a number of elements derived from indigenous and slave cultures in those areas (see the Caribbean and modern sections); while many African Initiated Churches demonstrate an integration of Christian and traditional African beliefs. In Asia the revolutionary movements of Taiping (19th-century China) and God's Army (Karen in the 1990s) have blended Christianity and traditional beliefs.

Syncretism can be contrasted with contextualization or inculturation, the practice of making Christianity relevant to a culture.

[edit] The Syncretistic Strife

The Syncretistic Strife is the name given to the theological quarrel provoked by the efforts of Georg Calixt and his supporters to secure a basis on which the Lutherans could make overtures to the Roman Catholic and the Reformed Churches. It lasted from 1640 to 1686. Calixt, a professor in Helmstedt, had through his travels in England, Holland, Italy, and France, through his acquaintance with the different Churches and their representatives, and through his extensive study, acquired a more friendly attitude towards the different religious bodies than was then usual among the majority of Lutheran theologians. While the latter firmly adhered to the "pure doctrine", Calixt was not disposed to regard doctrine as the one thing necessary in order to be a Christian, while in doctrine itself he did not regard everything as equally certain and important. Consequently, he advocated unity between those who were in agreement concerning the fundamental minimum, with liberty as to all less fundamental points. In regard to Catholicism, he was prepared (as Melanchthon once was) to concede to the pope a primacy human in origin, and he also admitted that the Mass might be called a sacrifice. On the side of Calixt stood the theological faculties of Helmstedt, Rinteln, and Königsberg; opposed to him were those of Leipzig, Jena, Strasburg, Giessen, Marburg, and Greifswald. His chief opponent was Abraham Calov. The Elector of Saxony was for political reasons an opponent of the Reformed Church, because the other two secular electors (Palatine and Brandenburg) were "reformed", and were getting more and more the advantage of him. In 1649 he sent to the three dukes of Brunswick, who maintained Helmstedt as their common university, a communication in which he voices all the objections of his Lutheran professors, and complains that Calixt wished to extract the elements of truth from all religions, fuse all into an entirely new religion, and so provoke a violent schism. In 1650 Calov was called to Wittenberg as professor, and he signalized his entrance into office with a vehement attack on the Syncretists in Helmstedt. An outburst of polemical writings followed. In 1650 the dukes of Brunswick answered the Elector of Saxony that the discord should not be allowed to increase, and proposed a meeting of the political councillors. Saxony, however, did not favour this suggestion. An attempt to convene a meeting of theologians was not more successful. The theologians of Wittenberg and Leipzig now elaborated a new formula, in which ninety-eight heresies of the Helmstedt theologians were condemned. This formula (consensus) was to be signed by everyone who wished to remain in the Lutheran Church. Outside Wittenberg and Leipzig, however, it was not accepted, and Calixt's death in 1656 was followed by five years of almost undisturbed peace.

The strife was renewed in Hesse-Cassel, where Landgrave Wilhelm VI sought to effect a union between his Lutheran and Reformed subjects, or at least to lessen their mutual hatred. In 1661 he had a colloquy held in Cassel between the Lutheran theologians of the University of Rinteln and the Reformed theologians of the University of Marburg. Enraged at this revival of the Syncretism of Calixt, the Wittenberg theologians in vehement terms called on the Rinteln professors to make their submission, whereupon the latter answered with a detailed defence. Another long series of polemical treatises followed. In Brandenburg-Prussia the Great Elector (Frederick William I) forbade (1663) preachers to speak of the disputes between the Evangelical bodies. A long colloquy in Berlin (Sept., 1662-May, 1663) led only to fresh discord. In 1664 the elector repeated his command that preachers of both parties should abstain from mutual abuse, and should attribute to the other party no doctrine which was not actually held by such party. Whoever refused to sign the form declaring his intention to observe this regulation, was deprived of his position (e. g. Paul Gerhardt, writer of religious songs). This arrangement was later modified, in that the forms were withdrawn, and action was taken only against those who disturbed the peace. The attempts of the Wittenberg theologians to declare Calixt and his school un-Lutheran and heretical were now met by Calixt's son, Friedrich Ulrich Calixt, The latter defended the theology of his father, but also tried to show that his doctrine did not so very much differ from that of his opponents. Wittenberg found its new champion in Ægidius Strauch, who attacked Calixt with all the resources of learning, polemics, sophistry, wit, cynicism, and abuse. The Helmnstedt side was defended by the celebrated scholar and statesman, Hermann Conring. The Saxon princes now recognized the danger that the attempt to carry through the "Consensus" as a formula of belief might lead to a fresh schism in the Lutheran Church, and might thus render its position difficult in the face of the Catholics. The proposals of Calov and his party to continue the refutation and to compel the Brunswick theologians to bind themselves under obligation to the old Lutheran confession, were therefore not carried into effect. On the contrary the Saxon theologians were forbidden to continue the strife in writing. Negotiations for peace then resulted, Duke Ernst the Pious of Saxe-Gotha being especially active towards this end, and the project of establishing a permanent college of theologians to decide theological disputes was entertained. However, the negotiations with the courts of Brunswick, Mecklenburg, Denmark, and Sweden were as fruitless as those with the theological faculties, except that peace was maintained until 1675. Calov then renewed hostilities. Besides Calixt, his attack was now directed particularly against the moderate John Musæus of Jena. Calov succeeded in having the whole University of Jena (and after a long resistance Musæus himself) compelled to renounce Syncretism. But this was his last victory. The elector renewed his prohibition against polemical writings. Calov seemed to give way, since in 1683 he asked whether, in the view of the danger which France then constituted for Germany, a Calixtinic Syncretism with "Papists" and the Reformed were still condemnable, and whether in deference to the Elector of Brandenburg and the dukes of Brunswick, the strife should not be buried by an amnesty, or whether, on the contrary, the war against Syncretism should be continued. He later returned to his attack on the Syncretists, but died in 1686, and with his death the strife ended. The result of the Syncretist Strife was that it lessened religious hatred and promoted mutual forbearance. Catholicism was thus benefited, as it came to be better understood and appreciated by Protestants. In Protestant theology it prepared the way for the sentimental theology of Pietism as the successor of fossilized orthodoxy.

This article incorporates text from the public-domain Catholic Encyclopedia.

[edit] Syncretism in Islam

Islam seems to have incorporated many beliefs from other religions, mainly from Judaism, but also from Christianity. However, this is not considered by Muslims as syncretism because Islam is considered to be the successor to the Jewish and Christian religions, completing the divine revelations through the Prophet Muhammad that God (Allah) began with other prophets, and all those from the progeny of Abraham. Muslims, however, do not see this as syncretic, since Abraham was said to have built the Ka'bah, and Muhammad removed and destroyed the idols within the Ka'bah upon his return to Mecca.

[edit] Syncretism in the Druze religion

The Druzes integrated elements of Ismaili Islam with Gnosticism and Platonism. Their practice of disguising themselves as followers of the dominant religion makes difficult to ascertain what is believed and what simulated.

[edit] Syncretism in the Bahá'í Faith

The Bahá'ís follow Bahá'u'lláh, a prophet whom they consider a successor to Muhammad, Jesus, Moses, Buddha, Zoroaster and others. This acceptance of other religious founders has, to some, indicated that the Bahá'í religion is a syncretic faith. However, Bahá'ís and the Bahá'í writings explicitly reject this view. Bahá'ís consider Bahá'u'lláh's revelation to be an independent, though related, revelation from God. Its relationship to previous dispensations is seen as analogous to the relationship of Christianity to Judaism. That beliefs are held in common is seen as evidence of truth, progressively revealed by God throughout human history, culminating in (at present) the Bahá'í revelation. Bahá'ís have their own sacred scripture, interpretations, laws and practices that, for Bahá'ís, supersede those of other faiths.

[edit] Syncretism in Caribbean religions and cultures

The process of syncretism in the Caribbean region is often referred to as creolization. (The term Creole is used to describe anyone, regardless of race or ethnicity, who was born and raised in the region.) The shared histories of the Caribbean islands include long periods of European Imperialism (mainly by Spain, France, and the United Kingdom), the importation of African slaves (primarily from Central and Western Africa). The influences of each of the above on the islands, in varying degrees were woven together producing the fabric of society that exists today in the Caribbean. The Rastafari movement, founded in Jamaica, is highly syncretic, mixing elements from the Bible, Marcus Garvey's Back-to-Africa movement, and Caribbean culture. Another highly syncretic religion of the area is voodoo, which combines elements of Western African, native Caribbean, and Christian (especially Roman Catholic) beliefs. See the modern section for other Caribbean syncretisms.

[edit] Syncretism in Mughal India

The Mughal emperor Akbar, who wanted to consolidate the diverse religious communities in his empire, propounded Din-i-Ilahi, a syncretic religion intended to merge the best elements of the religions of his empire. Sikhism blends elements of Islam and Hinduism.

[edit] Other modern syncretic religions

Recently developed religious systems that exhibit marked syncretism include the New World religions Candomblé, Vodun, and Santería, which analogize various Yorùbá and other African gods to the Roman Catholic pantheon of saints. Some sects of Candomblé have incorporated also Native American gods, and Umbanda combined African deities with Kardecist spiritualism.

School of Economic Science is a modern syncretic religious cult which incorporates the ideas of Ouspensky, Gurdjieff, Advaita Vedanta, Sankara and Maharishi Mahesh Yogi.

Unitarian Universalism is an example of a modern syncretic religion; it traces its roots to Universalist and Unitarian Christian congregations while at the same time freely incorporating elements from other religious and non-religious traditions.

In Vietnam, Caodaism blends elements of Buddhism, Catholicism and Kardecism. Among new Japanese religions several syncretic religious movements such as Konkokyo and Seicho-No-Ie have been founded in the latter half of the 19th century forwards.

Examples of strongly syncretist Romantic and modern movements include mysticism, occultism, theosophy, astrology, Neopaganism, and the New Age movement.

In spite of the Jewish prohibitions on polytheism, idolatry, and associated practices (avodah zarah), several combinations of Judaism with other religions have sprung up: Jewish Buddhism, Nazarenism, Judeo-Paganism, Messianic Judaism, Jewish Mormonism, Crypto-Judaism (in which Jews publicly profess another faith and privately celebrate Judaism), and others. Until relatively recently, China had a Jewish community which had adopted some Confucian practices.

Several of the Jewish Messiah claimants like Jacob Frank and the Sabbateans ended mixing Cabalistic Judaism with Christianity and Islam.

[edit] Syncretism in linguistics

In linguistic syncretism, one word form serves two or more morphosyntactic functions. Some inflected words or word forms in some natural languages indicate (morphologically) a distinction in syntax, while some other words in the same language do not. For example in Russian, some nouns have different word forms (inflections) in nominative and accusative (kniga, knigu) while some other nouns (pismo, pismo) inflect without a distinction. The former indicate a distinction in the Russian syntax while the latter hide that distinction.

[edit] Syncretism in cultures and societies

[edit] Syncretism in the Enlightenment

The modern, rational non-pejorative connotations began with Denis Diderot's Encyclopédie articles, Eclecticisme and Syncrétistes, Hénotiques, ou Conciliateurs. Diderot portrayed syncretism as the concordance of eclectic sources.

[edit] Modern syncretic social and cultural movements

Other forms of syncretism not directly related to religion are found in the modern world as well. This phenomenon is sometimes referred to as cultural and/or social syncretism. Japanese culture after World War II and the moderate tendencies within Neo-Tribalism are sometimes offered as examples. The eclectic aspects of postmodernism represent an important contemporary example of cultural syncretism observable in much of the Western world. The socio-spiritual movement Ananda Marga, which originated in India in 1955, is based on a syncretic approach to the different strands of yoga, as propounded by its founder P.R. Sarkar. The stated purpose is "to help individuals achieve complete self-realization and to build a social structure in which the physical, mental and spiritual needs of all people can be fulfilled."